Otherworldly beauty

Greenland  |  Anno 2022

 

Monday 5 September | Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord – Kap Ovibos – Blomsterbugten

Tuesday 6 September | Antarctic Sund – Ella Ø – Kong Oscar Fjord

Wednesday 7 September | Kong Oscar Fjord – Segelsällskapet Fjord

 

 

Monday 5 September | Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord – Kap Ovibos – Blomsterbugten

We waste no time. Last night, we ventured deep into the majestic Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord and anchored near Kap Ovibos around eleven o'clock. With the landing site in sight, there's no time to lose this morning. No sooner have we finished breakfast than we're on our way in the zodiacs for our fourth landing.

The entire fjord bathes in the warm light of the morning sun

Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord – Gunnar Andersson Land

The weather is unmatched, and the conditions are ideal. The entire fjord bathes in the warm light of the morning sun. On the opposite side, its rays cast a reddish pattern of light and shadow over the eroded slopes of Gunnar Andersson Land. Further inland, the highest mountains display their white caps of pristine snow. The water gently rises and falls, reflecting the blue sky. A few icebergs have gone off course and have become stuck at the foot of the mountainous coast. The water temperature is 7 °C (44.6 °F), and the air temperature is 6 °C (42.8 °F), as we remember from the announcements via the intercom.

 

Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord

So we don't have to fear bad weather. Still, the familiar white barrels with red lids are waiting for us on the sandy beach. This serves as a visual beacon for the zodiac drivers, but primarily, they are there for safety reasons. The weather can change here in the blink of an eye. We must be prepared for the possibility that we may suddenly be unable to return to the Hondius by zodiac. Therefore, these barrels contain survival kits for two days – food, blankets, water, and something to make fire.

 

Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord

Kap Ovibos

A little further along, close to the beach, stands Kap Oviboshytten, a hut for hunters. But we climb higher up the slopes of the Kirkeruden. There are no trees or shrubs; the slope is completely flat, aside from a few ditches and gentle undulations. But that doesn’t mean nothing grows here. On the contrary, the richness of colours is breathtaking. The scarlet autumn leaves of the blueberries, interspersed with white Arctic dandelions, are bathed in a fiery glow by the low sun. Higher up, a white Arctic hare was reportedly spotted, but it has long since escaped the commotion. In the distance, we see the silhouettes of three armed crew members who are keeping watch – you never know if a polar bear with a bad temperament is lurking around here. The view over the Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord, with the mountainous Gunnar Andersson Land across the way, is spectacular.

 

Kap Ovibos

Kap Oviboshytten

The scarlet autumn leaves of the blueberries, interspersed with white Arctic dandelions, are bathed in a fiery glow by the low sun

Kap Ovibos – Tundra vegetation

Once again, archaeologist and former museum director Claus has discovered some remnants of winter dwellings from the Inuit. It is not illogical that the Inuit settled in this place. On the east side, the cape is bordered by the Nordfjord, and on the west side by the Geologfjord. Both fjords are fed by a glacier. Where there are glaciers, icebergs break off. This attracts seals that use the ice floes as platforms to rest and, more importantly, to dive for food. Seals on ice floes are something that polar bears cannot resist. In short, with two glaciers nearby, the Inuit always had enough food within reach.

With two glaciers nearby, the Inuit always had enough food within reach

Winter dwelling from the Inuit

Entrance tunnel

Nevertheless, the Inuit were cautious enough to choose their permanent settlement high on the slope. They were undoubtedly familiar with the sight of calving and tilting icebergs and the tsunamis that could be caused by them. Building at least ten meters above sea level was therefore not an exaggerated precaution.

In reality, the door was a small tunnel, so you had to crawl under the stones to get inside

The Inuit hunted with harpoons. In their kayaks, they pursued seals, walruses, and even whales. But they also sought reindeer, birds, and fish. Nothing went to waste: meat and fat were used for food, skins were used for clothing and tents, and teeth were made into jewellery, tools, and weapons. Even the bones found suitable uses as fuel or building material.

The Inuit likely appeared in this area around 1400. Generally, they lived in small groups, like here on the slopes of the Kirkeruden, where we can recognize the remnants of about five dwellings. These likely date from the 17th or 18th century. After that, the Inuit permanently left this area. The reason for this is not entirely clear. However, it is generally believed that the cooling climate was the main culprit.

 

Re-enactment

Blueberries and Arctic dandelions

What remains of the dwellings are shallow square depressions with some loose stones around the edge, overgrown with tundra vegetation. Since our visit to Myggbukta, we know that the walls were built with stones and turf and lined on the inside with seal skin. Driftwood found along the coast was used as roofing material. The ribs of a whale were sometimes used for this purpose as well.

Claus is not too shy to perform an improvised re-enactment and comfortably settles himself into the depression as the Inuit must have done during the long, dark winters. The stone he sits on was once covered with a musk ox hide. Quite warm, he grins. His feet, unfortunately, are about twenty centimetres lower, and it’s a bit colder there. In front of him lies a pile of stones that the Inuit referred to as the door. In reality, it was a small tunnel, so you had to crawl under the stones to get inside. The idea was to create a sort of siphon that partially kept the winter cold outside. This was fortunate, as the outside temperature at that time must have been around –10 to –15 °C (14 °F to 5 °F). We shiver at the mere thought of it.

 

From the ridge we look down onto the mouth of the narrow Geologfjord. On the other side, we now see the sun-drenched Mørkebjerg. Simply breathtaking

Mørkebjerg

The enormous, almost sheer cliff that rises somewhat mysteriously above the barren slope to the west continues to intrigue us. Curious, we climb up the slope of Kirkeruden until we look down from the ridge onto the mouth of the narrow Geologfjord. On the other side, we now see the sun-drenched rock massif in all its glory. It is an enormous rock formation, slightly more than a thousand meters high, more than three times the height of the Rock of Gibraltar. Simply breathtaking. The rock formation is part of the Mørkebjerg, and the place where it is located is called Dolomitpynt because the mineral dolomite is found there.

Further inland, we will encounter even older structures, including basalt rocks, he adds with sparkling eyes

Tom, a geologist with a rifle, has much more to say about it. In fact, he is here on this ridge to ward off polar bears, but he can't stop talking about this impressive landscape. The coastal mountains across the way are formed from Old Red Sandstone, more specifically during the Devonian period, he explains. So, it’s a mere 400 million years old. If you look a bit more to the right, you'll see a mountain range that's 600 to 900 million years old, with a layered structure full of folds. These, Tom says, are the remnants of a subtropical sea with limestone deposits from shellfish. Further inland, we will encounter even older structures, including basalt rocks, he adds with sparkling eyes. But all of this will become clearer tomorrow morning during his lecture on geology, he assures us. Which immediately gives us mixed feelings. Geology can be fascinating, but also darn complicated.

 

Mørkebjerg

While Tom continues to scan for polar bears, we make our way down to the beach. With heavy plops the moderate swell dies down in the shallow water. Setting off with the zodiac proves to be challenging, as the propeller occasionally churns uselessly in the sand. But persistence pays off, and soon we are floating in the middle of the Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord, surrounded by a monumental landscape. Across the way, on Gunnar Andersson Land, a thick ice cap is draped over the mountain peaks. Mountains of old red sandstone are cut through by erosion gullies, while older mountains boast the irregular folds of their rock layers in various colours. In the distance, the imposing Devil’s Castle awaits our arrival. But that’s for later.

The crackling sound is caused by air being released from the ice as it melts. It's as if the air, upon being freed, lets out a sigh of relief

 

Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord

Here and there, icebergs float on the water. Zodiac driver Pieter steers the boat toward Mørkebjerg, as he has spotted one of the larger ice masses at the base of that rock massif. A small ice floe we pass by catches our attention, crackling softly like a gentle fireplace. The crackling sound is caused by air being released from the ice as it melts. It's as if the air, upon being freed, lets out a sigh of relief.

Then, a musk ox is spotted, high on the barren slope of Moskusoksefjeld – nomen est omen

Musk ox

Dolomitpunt, Mørkebjerg

Then, a musk ox is spotted, high on the barren slope of, fittingly enough, Moskusoksefjeld – nomen est omen, indeed. But once again, our observation leads to a slight disappointment. The solitary animal is calmly grazing in the distance, but to us, it’s little more than a dark speck on a pale slope. Will this be the image of the musk ox that we take home with us?

 

 

Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord

The icebergs, on the other hand, are impossible to miss. The melting process creates strange shapes and textures in the ice, resembling modern design when viewed up close. Elsewhere, the melting is so rapid that water drips down in a constant stream, like a cold shower. A glaucous gull pays no attention to any of this, gliding gracefully around the ice castles.

 

The isolated mountain doesn’t seem particularly devilish to us. Yet, Teufelsschloß was the name Karl Koldewey's gave it in 1870

Devil’s Castle

Shortly after twelve, the Hondius lifts anchor, and we sail westward through the narrow fjord of Eleonore Bugt. Gradually, the famous Devil’s Castle comes into view on the starboard side. It's an imposing structure of reddish rock interspersed with pale sediment layers, standing at a respectable 1,340 meters high, though it doesn’t seem particularly devilish to us. Yet, that was the image that came to Karl Koldewey's mind when he named the isolated mountain Teufelsschloß in 1870.

 

Eleonore Bugt

 

As fascinating as the colossal fortress is, we turn our backs on it. Our afternoon activity will take place on the other side of the fjord, specifically in Blomsterbugten – Blossom Bay – where we have a long hike planned.

Just before three, we stand eagerly on the pebble beach, listening to Koen's final instructions. It will be a steep climb, he explains, so our clothing should be appropriate. Dress in layers, and always make sure you’re warm enough without sweating. In all cold areas, the rule is: A wet man is a dead man. Fortunately, our heavy life vests can be left behind on the beach, but no matter how sunny it is, we must always be prepared for rain in the mountains. Koen knows his stuff; he has made a career out of guiding treks through the mountains of Patagonia.

In all cold areas, the rule is: A wet man is a dead man

Blomsterbugten

As for armed protection, today it is not only aimed at polar bears, but also at wolves. Although, Koen adds with a wide grin, it’s been since 1989 that wolves were last spotted here. Cas will walk at the back with a carbine, Renno in the middle, and Koen at the front. So, we have three armed guides. The question that spontaneously arises among us is: what if there are four wolves?

The question that spontaneously arises among us is: what if there are four wolves?

Lake Noa

We now ascend at a brisk pace. Climbing through the wide valley between the mountains of Gunnar Andersson Land and Ymer Ø, we make our way toward Lake Noa. If we were to hike far enough – a distance of about twenty kilometres – we would arrive at the beach of the Dusén Fjord. In other words, we are at the head of a fjord, and Lake Noa is a glacial lake, left behind by the glacier that carved out the fjord.

 

 

The landscape that gradually unfolds before us is simply stunning. You might somewhat irreverently call it a jumble, given the sheer variety in the structure, shapes, and colours of the rocks. Every spot seems to have its own unique geological history. Amidst all this, brown and reddish hues dominate. That red colour indicates the abundant presence of iron, primarily in the form of the mineral hematite. The rock debris even tints Lake Noa a pale brown.

You’d have to be quite desperate to actually see chocolate in it

Chokoladebjerg

To our left, the Chokoladebjerg rises, a giant standing 1,010 meters tall. Geologists gave it that name in 1933 because of its deep brown colour – though you’d have to be quite desperate to actually see chocolate in it. Further on lies the slightly smaller but no less spectacular Rosinante, distinguished by its pronounced layering. However, the connection to Rosinante, Don Quixote’s horse, completely escapes us.

The connection to Rosinante, Don Quixote’s horse, completely escapes us

Rosinante

The tundra vegetation has a tough time here. Bare rocks and gravel dominate the landscape, with small plants managing to survive in between with great difficulty. Their autumn colours beautifully complement the valley's colour palette. Orange, green, and even black lichens adorn the rocks. We know by now that these are intense partnerships between algae and fungi, so interconnected that they cannot survive without each other. The black lichens have tiny leaves and thus show a bit of relief, while the others are so thin that you couldn’t even scrape them off with a razor blade, Koen knows.

These birds are ecologically naive; they have yet to learn that it’s usually a good idea to stay far away from Homo sapiens

Snow bunting

Purple sandpiper

A snow bunting sits proudly and unafraid on a large rock. The fact that our little group passes not far from it doesn’t seem to bother it; it remains motionless. These birds are ecologically naive; they have yet to learn that it’s usually a good idea to stay far away from Homo sapiens.

Snow buntings hold a similar symbolic value here as swallows do for us – when the first snow buntings appear in the sky, spring is on the way

 

Rocky environments like this are the favourite haunts of snow buntings. They typically build their nests in rock crevices, out of reach of arctic foxes and other predators. Males attract females to the nest with their songs. However, they must first claim a favourable territory. This means the males need to return early enough from their wintering grounds in the steppes of Russia and Eastern Europe to outpace the competition. Even if that means enduring harsh cold. In any case, they hold a similar symbolic value here as swallows do for us – when the first snow buntings appear in the sky, spring is on the way.

 

Musk oxen in the distance…

But Koen has more important news for us. We are almost certain to see some musk oxen up close shortly. According to his information, they are located on the other side of the hill ahead of us. To avoid scaring the animals, absolute silence is required from now on. We don’t want to miss this opportunity.

Carefully, we climb up the hill, eagerly peering over the ridge, only to be disappointed to find nothing in sight. At least, no living creatures. Oh yes, there are some – far off on a grassy field on a high slope, a group of five musk oxen is quietly grazing. With the naked eye, they are barely distinguishable. This isn’t what Koen had in mind.

Now what? Trying to approach them unnoticed isn’t an option

…and closer

We do not lose courage and continue our trek resolutely. The next hill holds the surprise that eluded us earlier. As soon as we reach the top, our eyes catch sight of a group of six musk oxen grazing down by the shore of the lake. Now what? Trying to approach them unnoticed isn’t an option. First, because we must not disturb the animals, and second, because it would have the opposite effect. They would quickly spot us and inevitably run away.

Arctic bumblebees are the first insects to become active in the spring. Arctic willows and Svalbard poppies especially rely on them

But Koen comes up with a clever plan. He suggests descending toward a rock massif on our right, finding a ledge to sit on, and then patiently waiting. Given how the animals are behaving, it seems likely they will graze past us, allowing us to observe them as if from a grandstand.

So, we stick to the plan, and fortunately, the musk oxen do as well. Slowly but surely, they wander in the desired direction, unaware of our presence. The sun also does its part, shining brightly.

Even an Arctic bumblebee buzzes around our ears to check things out. Despite its small size, this creature manages to survive temperatures around freezing. It owes this to its thicker coat and a thermoregulation system that allows it to raise its body temperature to 38 °C (100 °F) – not bad for a cold-blooded insect. Because of this, Arctic bumblebees are the first insects to become active in the spring. Arctic willows and Svalbard poppies especially rely on them, wanting to be pollinated as early as possible in the spring. The summers here are just too short to waste time.

Despite its name, the musk ox is not a type of cattle but rather sheep-like

Musk oxen on the shore of Lake Noa

Meanwhile, the musk oxen have appeared, grazing at the foot of our natural grandstand, though they still remain a good two hundred meters away. There they are, enjoying the juicy plants on the marshy shore of the lake. There are five of them, and it's unclear where the sixth has gone.

In winter, they seek out areas with little snowfall or where strong winds keep the ground snow-free

Their menu primarily consists of grass, sedge, Arctic willows, and the twigs of blueberries. In winter, they seek out areas with little snowfall or where strong winds keep the ground snow-free; otherwise, they cannot access food. If freezing temperatures create an ice crust on melting snow, it can have dramatic consequences for musk oxen, as they cannot break through the ice, leading to massive famine and death.

 

Musk oxen on the shore of Lake Noa

Is it our scents, our colours, or the clicking sounds of our cameras? The fact is that the musk oxen are aware that something unusual is happening in their surroundings. Occasionally, they curiously turn their large, bulky heads in our direction. Yet they seem to conclude that the red jackets pose no threat.

For a man with a rifle, this is the perfect scenario. He can take down the motionless animals one by one

Musk ox

This attitude is also ecologically naive. Historically, the only enemies of musk oxen have been wolves and… humans. When danger threatens, musk oxen will flee. If a predator continues to pursue them, they form a circle with the calves in the centre and the adults with their horns lowered on the outside. This strategy works excellently against wolves; they have no chance against such a wall of horns. However, for a man with a rifle, this is the perfect scenario. He can take down the motionless animals one by one. Fortunately, this practice is a thing of the past, though musk oxen were nearly driven to extinction before they were granted protection.

 

 

We observe the peaceful quintet for nearly half an hour. Then we retreat behind the rocks. Despite its name, Koen explains, the musk ox is not a type of cattle but rather sheep-like. Today, they are only native to Greenland and the Canadian Arctic. Elsewhere, they have been introduced with varying degrees of success. In Norway and Siberia, it worked out, but not in Svalbard. It’s likely that musk oxen there lost the competition for scarce food against reindeer.

The ancestors of modern musk oxen adapted to the cold tundra climate at least two million years ago, probably in Central Asia. About a million years ago, they migrated to North America. Fortunately, because elsewhere they went extinct due to overhunting by humans. During the Ice Ages, musk oxen must have even lived in the Low Countries.

 

Lake Noa, Blomsterbugten

It’s not an attractive animal. Some Inuit refer to it as the ugly moose or ugly bison. This is primarily due to its thick coat, which hangs in untidy strands almost to the ground. Its woolly fur is so dense that you can't even see that the animal has a tail. However, this coat is essential for surviving harsh winters. The secret lies not so much in the long guard hairs but in the fine layer of wool beneath. This inner wool is called qiviut, and it is among the softest and warmest types of wool – also one of the most expensive, costing twice as much as cashmere.

Qiviut is among the softest and warmest types of wool. Also one of the most expensive, costing twice as much as cashmere

This is also why musk oxen have been domesticated. It was only in the 1950s that this was effectively achieved. To harvest qiviut, the musk ox doesn’t even need to be sheared. During the moulting process in spring, the precious wool naturally sheds. A gentle combing is all that is needed.

 

 

A purple sandpiper flies in low between the rocks, landing carefree less than ten meters from us. Our presence does not bother it in the least. Purple sandpipers are late migrants; it has to be quite cold before they travel south in small flocks to spend the winter on rocky, ice-free Atlantic coasts. They pick their food with their long beaks from between the stones in the water.

 

Rosinante

Koen has another climb in store for us, short but challenging. Panting, we soon gaze out over the valley – the Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord, Lake Noa, the Chokoladebjerg, and especially the colourful Rosinante in full view. In the distance, we even spot a third group of musk oxen. There are five of them, they lie on a slope, chewing the cud.

The polar hare seems to confidently play the lead role in a photoshoot on the catwalk

Arctic hare

Then we begin our descent. A few kilometres separate us from the pebble beach where the zodiacs landed earlier. We think there’s not much more to see along the way. At least, that’s what we assume. Suddenly, we come across a polar hare proudly sitting under a rock with its white coat. Its ears are perked up, with the black tips clearly visible. Despite the audience – we stand in a semicircle around it – it doesn’t flinch. It seems to confidently play the lead role in a photoshoot on the catwalk.

In this landscape with its colourful tundra vegetation and brown-red rocks, the Arctic hare resembles a walking lightbox

Arctic hare

We are surprised that its fur is still white. In winter, surrounded by snow and ice, white serves as the perfect camouflage colour. However, in this landscape with its colourful tundra vegetation and brown-red rocks, it resembles a walking lightbox. Apparently, adult polar hares are fast enough to escape predators like wolves and snowy owls in time. But this does not apply to young hares, which are still slow and vulnerable. Their fur is therefore… brown. They only get their white coat in September.

 

Blomsterbugten

Small species of willow and stonecrops are its favourite foods. Like musk oxen, an Arctic hare must dig these out from under the snow in winter. That’s why it prefers areas with a thin layer of snow or where strong winds have blown the snow away.

 

Skull of musk ox

Lichens

Very strange is an Arctic hare’s habit of eating its own droppings. It does this to cultivate a healthy gut flora. Its faeces contain important nutrients such as vitamin B and proteins. The hare produces these in its large intestine but actually needs them in its small intestine. So, it has no choice but to consume its pellets.

Even now, these stones lie in a circular formation, enduring the centuries, with flat slates at the entrance where they would place a lamp

Tent ring with entrance (top right)

Back at the beach, archaeologist Henrik has discovered traces of a summer camp from the Inuit. This time, there are no pits from winter dwellings, but rather a tent ring. In summer, the Inuit led a nomadic lifestyle. They followed the coastlines of the islands in their kayaks in search of suitable hunting grounds. They would spend the night in temporary camps with summer tents made from skins, which were secured at the bottom with stones. Even now, these stones lie in a circular formation, enduring the centuries, with flat slates at the entrance where they would place a lamp. Henrik suspects we are dealing with a miniature version, possibly a children's play tent.

By half past six, we are back on board the Hondius. Shortly after, during the daily recap, Hans unfolds the plans for tomorrow. It will be a quiet morning, an experience he describes as a ship cruise through Antarctic Sund. For now, we can't imagine much of it, but tomorrow it will prove to be one of the most overwhelming experiences of the trip. In the afternoon, we will land with the zodiacs on Ella Ø, a small island with a former research station, some lovely ponds, and an impressive rock massif. While waiting for all that beauty, we will anchor tonight at the beginning of the sund. And let's not forget, tomorrow morning we will have to set our watches back another hour, putting us two hours behind Belgium.

 

 

It all sounds promising. We don't have to fear stormy weather in the calm waters of this fjord system. So, we don't expect any changes to the plan.

Yet, it soon becomes clear that anchoring won't be possible

Yet, it soon becomes clear that anchoring won't be possible. The water is simply too deep for our anchor chain. It's eight links long – 220 meters – but in practice, due to the curved line of the chain, the water can only be a maximum of eighty meters deep. Although there are a few places near the shore where we could anchor, they are already taken by… icebergs. Meanwhile, our planned anchorage for Blomsterbugten has also been occupied by another ship.

How do we solve this parking problem? There is only one solution – gently sailing back and forth all night long. This is not too bad at all. Until late in the evening, we enjoy the spectacular geological formations along the shores of Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord. Questions about how those marvellous cliff walls formed and where they come from will be addressed by geologist Tom tomorrow.

A fantastic alternative for the intended landing will present itself tomorrow

As for the intended landing on Ella Ø, that too will not happen, as we will learn tomorrow. But that will prove to be fortunate, because a fantastic alternative will present itself.

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Tuesday 6 September | Antarctic Sund – Ella Ø – Kong Oscar Fjord

We have entered a geological picture book that is unparalleled in the world. For now, we do not fully realize this, but gradually it will become clear to us. For geologists, Greenland is indeed a true paradise. The diversity of the island is unmatched, ranging from the oldest rocks on Earth – more than three billion years old – to relatively recent basalt lava flows – only about fifty million years old.

For geologists, Greenland is a true paradise. The geology of the terrain reads like an open book

Antarctic Sund

But this is not the only asset of Greenland. Vegetation is very sparse, so all these rocks lie open and exposed to the surface. The geology of the terrain reads like an open book – at least where the ground is not covered by snow and ice. About 80% of the island is burdened by a thick layer of ice. In this context, burdened should be taken quite literally. In some places, the Greenland ice cap is as much as 3.4 km thick. This massive ice mass is so heavy that it pushes the centre of the island several dozen meters below sea level.

If you want to capture the geological history of the Earth in one place, you should go to Greenland

Antarctic Sund

Fortunately, the remaining twenty percent of the island is largely ice-free during the summer season. This is especially true for the fjord systems of Kejser Franz Joseph and Kong Oscar, the largest ice-free area in Greenland, where we currently find ourselves. Moreover, in the past, some of the most spectacular events in the geological history of Greenland took place here. The result is a geological unique site, a setting that has no equal worldwide. If you want to capture the geological history of the Earth in one place, you should go to Greenland. Every geologist will confirm this.

However, geology is a complex subject, as our onboard geologist Tom knows well. During his lecture, he will try to give us some insight into this. Central to his story is the Caledonian orogeny, a scholarly term for the mountain-building event that began about 420 million years ago. This event is so significant for East Greenland that Tom distinguishes between a time before, during, and after this orogeny.

The Earth's crust is not a solid shell that holds everything together like a nut shell does

Antarctic Sund

But first, he recalls some general concepts. It is well known that the Earth roughly consists of a hot iron core, surrounded by a mantle of hot rock, and then a thin crust. Although, to call it a crust is somewhat of a euphemism. The Earth's crust is not a solid shell that holds everything together like a nut shell does. On the contrary, the crust is a loose collection of plates that float on the hot mantle, forming the puzzle we call continents.

Nowhere else in the world rocks being about 3.8 billion years old are so accessible and well-preserved

Within that mantle, things are very dynamic. Hot material constantly rises to the surface where it cools down, while cold material sinks and becomes warmer. This results in relentless convection currents. The plates of the Earth's crust are inevitably carried along by these currents. Sometimes they drift apart, creating a gap through which magma bubbles up. At other times, they collide. In such cases, one of the plates may slide beneath the other, leading to considerable friction, earthquakes, and erupting volcanoes. It's also possible that neither plate gives way even a fraction. When the rock has no escape, it is pushed upward like toothpaste from a tube, resulting in the formation of mountains.

 

Antarctic Sund

The formation of planet Earth can be dated back to approximately 4.6 billion years ago. This doesn't mean that all rocks on Earth are that old, but Greenland comes pretty close with its oldest rocks being about 3.8 billion years old. Usually, such ancient rocks are buried deep in the Earth's crust. However, around Nuuk, Greenland's capital on the west coast, they are beautifully exposed. Nowhere else in the world are they so accessible and well-preserved.

Tom has now donned his seven-league boots and suddenly stands over two billion years further along in geological time. In the meantime, things have been quite hectic in Greenland. Plates have continued to collide. The heat and pressure were immense, causing rocks to be thrown together, deformed, folded, and fused. This process led to the formation of the Precambrian Shield, a solid block of gneiss, granite, and schist, which can be considered the foundation on which present-day Greenland rests.

These sedimentary layers indicate the presence of a shallow sea

Antarctic Sund

But about 1.6 billion years ago, things began to calm down a bit. New collisions ceased, and erosion was able to take over. Gradually, the mountain ranges were worn down, and enormous masses of rock debris were produced, picked up by rivers and deposited along the coast.

This process created a sediment layer with a staggering thickness of... 18 km. We can observe some surprising results as we gaze at the mountains surrounding us. Colourful bands alternate in a regular pattern, as if a master painter had applied a beautiful striped pattern to the mountain slopes. These sedimentary layers indicate the presence of a shallow sea, according to Tom. Seafloors leave behind layers of sand and clay, while dead shellfish deposit a layer of limestone over them. Both layers then solidify, enduring the test of time.

That has to do with the headstrong behaviour of planet Earth. It doesn't follow a strict path

Antarctic Sund

But how is it that these layers alternate with such a near-perfect regularity? That has to do with the headstrong behaviour of planet Earth. It doesn't follow a strict path; its axis doesn’t always point precisely in the same direction – specifically toward the North Star – but wobbles slightly, much like a spinning top. Additionally, the orbit that Earth follows around the sun isn't always a perfectly neat ellipse. Sometimes, it bulges a bit, while other times it flattens.

These are minor fluctuations, but they have significant consequences. The climate on Earth is profoundly affected by them. Moreover, these fluctuations exhibit a fixed periodicity. Every few million years, the exact same conditions recur, leading to the same climate and, consequently, the same deposits. This is how those beautiful striped cliff walls are formed. As long as there is little to no geological activity, it is these astronomical variations – exclusively – that shape the landscape. This is precisely what transpired here between 900 and 600 million years ago. Geologists refer to this area as the Eleonore Bay Supergroup. We only need to look out the window to appreciate its otherworldly beauty.

We only need to look out the window to appreciate the otherworldly beauty of the Eleonore Bay Supergroup

Antarctic Sund

Research has shown that those sediment layers formed in a tropical climate. This makes sense, as Greenland was once located at the equator. But how is it possible that the uppermost layer often consists of tillite? Tillite is a type of rock layer that is exclusively deposited by glaciers. What are glaciers doing at the equator, the hottest place on Earth?

It is not entirely certain, according to Tom, but many geologists suspect that the earth once was completely covered in snow and ice. They call that era Snowball Earth. Imagine, all the seas are frozen over and on the mainland you only find glaciers and ice caps. Must have been quite a sight. In any case, the deposition of tillite dates back to that era.

Imagine, all the seas are frozen over and on the mainland you only find glaciers and ice caps

Antarctic Sund

While much of Greenland remained relatively calm, new trouble was brewing in East Greenland. The tectonic plates of Greenland and present-day Norway were on a collision course. Inevitably, they were drifting toward each other. The Iapetus Ocean, located to the east of Greenland, would be the victim of this confrontation. Approximately 420 million years ago, Iapetus completely vanished from the map, as if a zipper had been drawn tightly from north to south.

The mass of rock that was thrust upwards in Greenland formed a mountain range that was even taller than the present-day Himalayas

But that was not the end of the story. When tectonic plates collide, mountains are born. The mass of rock that was thrust upwards formed a mountain range that was even taller than the present-day Himalayas. This event marked the famous Caledonian orogeny. Orogeny refers to mountain formation, and Caledonia was the name the Romans gave to Scotland. This also explains why the Scots have been so reluctant to be tied to England, Tom jokes.

 

Antarctic Sund

The consequences of this cataclysm can still be seen today. Where the beautiful sediment layers of the Eleonore Bay Supergroup once rested neatly atop one another, they are now folded and displaced as if made of cardboard. The most intricate folding patterns emerged, sometimes making it difficult to discern their structure. Yet this only adds to their captivating beauty. Geologists claim that such formations cannot be observed anywhere else on Earth.

Erosion once again had its chance to work. Gradually, the sharp edges of the newly formed mountains were worn down, and the sediment was spread along the coastlines. Within a few tens of millions of years, the task was completed. The Greenlandic version of the Himalayas had been reduced to more modest proportions, transforming into a humble coastal mountain range made up of Old Red Sandstone – the same ancient red sandstone that we had seen yesterday, Tom notes.

A tsunami of unprecedented life forms flooded the Earth

Antarctic Sund

But there was something special about those sediments. A new phenomenon had emerged globally. A tsunami of unprecedented life forms flooded the Earth. Life on Earth was no longer a marginal affair of multicellular organisms; the world’s oceans were now teeming with complex beings. Geologists refer to this rapid evolution as the Cambrian explosion, which began approximately 539 million years ago.

One significant feather that these new creatures could place in their cap was the invention of the backbone and hard body parts that protected them from predators. In other words, vertebrates had made their debut on the world stage. However, backbones and hard body parts do not easily decompose like soft organisms; they fossilize. At this point, East Greenland proves to be a true treasure trove. More than ten thousand fish fossils from this exciting period have been uncovered there.

One significant feather that these new creatures could place in their cap was the invention of the backbone

Antarctic Sund

Sometimes, these are even very special fossils. Like those found in the Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord, where fossils have been discovered that exhibit characteristics of both fish and amphibians. In other words, fish with four legs. This discovery leaves no palaeontologist unmoved, as it supports the theory that fish began to explore the land around 420 million years ago to develop a terrestrial lifestyle.

Yet Greenland's geological troubles were far from over. Starting around one hundred million years ago, the island was plagued by a hotspot, a location where magma rises more easily than elsewhere. This began on the west coast and ended forty million years ago on the east coast, as Greenland slowly drifted over the hotspot. By the way, Tom notes, that same hotspot is currently located under Iceland. Other well-known contemporary examples of hotspots include Hawaii, the Azores, the Canary Islands, the Galapagos Islands, Yellowstone, and, closer to home, the German Eifel.

Hotspots create volcanism in locations where one might not expect it

Antarctic Sund

What makes hotspots particularly interesting is the fact that they are unaffected by the movements of tectonic plates. The volcanism they create does not occur where plates collide but rather in locations where one might not expect it. Geologists have yet to reach a consensus on why this is the case. Perhaps the Earth's crust in these areas is simply thinner than elsewhere, or it could be that there is a place where hot magma continuously rises from below and presses against the Earth's crust – this phenomenon is known as a mantle plume.

Regardless of the explanation, we can still observe the effects of hotspots in the landscape. From time to time, lava breaks through the thin crust of the Earth. One shouldn't expect violent explosions like those of a classic volcano; rather, the lava flows like a thin liquid across the Earth's surface, similar to spilled milk on a tabletop. When it cools, it forms a layer of basalt. If a new eruption occurs, this layer is neatly deposited on top of the previous one, resulting in basalt plateaus that can be several kilometres thick. We will be able to observe this around Scoresby Sund.

Only Scotland remained reluctantly attached to England

Antarctic Sund

Fifty million years ago, the love affair between Greenland and Norway came to an end. The two plates were once again pushed apart. Only Scotland remained reluctantly attached to England, Tom adds with a hint of amusement. The ocean that formed during this separation is still known as the Atlantic Ocean today.

Eighteen million years ago, the current ice cap gradually began to appear on Greenland. Soon after, the island would face yet another new threat – Homo sapiens. Even traces of lead mining missions from the time of ancient Rome have been found in Greenlandic ice. Nowadays, climate change poses the greatest threat. If all the ice from the Greenland ice cap were to melt, global sea levels would rise by 7.4 meters.

Soon after, the island would face yet another new threat – Homo sapiens

Antarctic Sund

Geology is a complex subject, Tom concludes, perhaps difficult for outsiders to grasp. Still, he hopes to achieve one thing with his presentation – that we will be able to effortlessly distinguish rock layers that are 600 to 900 million years old from those younger than 400 million years. The former display the most intricate folds, while the latter do not. We intend to do our best.

In the meantime, the Hondius has left the Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord behind and has entered the Antarctic Sund. This does not mean the end of the spectacular mountains along the shores. We are still surrounded by the formations of the Eleonore Bay Supergroup, the rock layers that have been folded by the Caledonian orogeny as if they were made of cardboard.

The bearded seal can rest easy; his only enemy, the polar bear, is not a threat here. At least, that’s what we suspect

Bearded seal

There are icebergs here too. They come from one of the many glaciers located further inland and are now slowly drifting towards the sea. On one of the smaller ice floes, a bearded seal is lounging. He can rest easy; his only enemy, the polar bear, is not a threat here. At least, that’s what we suspect.

As we meet the tiny islands of Ruth Ø and Maria Ø, we enter the Kong Oscar Fjord, named after the Swedish King Oscar II. Here, this impressive fjord is at its narrowest, a mere ten kilometres wide. However, about fifty kilometres further on, beyond the bend, it expands into an impressive inlet that is 25 kilometres wide. Together with the equally impressive Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord, Kong Oscar Fjord forms one of the main attractions of the fjord system along the rugged east coast of Greenland.

 

Kong Oscar Fjord

Just before noon, we drop anchor in Solitærbugt, the Lonely Bay, and gaze out over the slightly larger island of Ella Ø. In fact, these three islands form a charming family group. Geologist and palaeobotanist Nathorst found it fitting in 1899 to name the large island after his wife Ella and the two smaller ones after his daughters Ruth and Maria.

 

Gletscherland

In the distance, on the barren, rocky shore, we spot about ten reddish-brown buildings – the research station that Lauge Koch established here in 1931. His choice of this specific location on Ella Ø was far from coincidental. Solitærbugt, the bay where we currently find ourselves, naturally forms a well-sheltered, fairly deep harbour that remains ice-free throughout the summer. The climate here is relatively pleasant – considering the circumstances – with a surprising number of sunny days. Additionally, the dry, gently sloping shore makes it easy to build houses. And, last but not least, there's a small lake higher up from which potable water can be drawn.

Kystens Perle, the Pearl of the Coast, is what our polar explorers affectionately called their new spot on this Arctic version of the Riviera

Ella Ø – Kystens Perle… with polar bear

Kystens Perle, the Pearl of the Coast, is what our polar explorers affectionately called their new spot on this Arctic version of the Riviera. The name was chosen with a touch of irony but also a hint of nostalgia. It refers to a popular café-restaurant in Kastrup near Copenhagen, which still exists to this day.

 

Ørnereden

Amidst the nondescript block-like buildings, one fairly large structure immediately catches our eye. With its sloping roof and two floors, it almost resembles a villa. This is Ørnereden, the Eagle's Nest, the original building where expedition members overwintered from 1931 to 1943 and again from 1947 to 1952. It was ahead of its time in terms of insulation, with double-walled exteriors made of hardboard and an insulating air layer of twelve centimetres in between.

To the right, we can see the original kitchen and a barrack. The smaller buildings on the left, however, are of more recent origin. In 1950-1951, these housed 51 staff members of the Danish Geodetic Institute, whose mission was to map this part of Greenland using aerial photography.

The scouts have spotted a polar bear. Going ashore is completely out of the question

 

At half-past two, the first zodiacs will depart, Marcel announces over the intercom. Our hike will take us past the research station – though unfortunately, no one is there today – and then we'll climb up the slope to explore the area around the small lake, among other things. We still have plenty of time to get ready.

It is a female. This can be deduced from secondary sexual characteristics

 

Ten minutes to two. Another message comes through the intercom. Bad news this time. The scouts have spotted a polar bear. Going ashore is completely out of the question. A real damper on our plans. But there is some good news too. We'll take the zodiacs and sail just offshore. There, we hope to observe the polar bear up close – but not too close, of course.

 

 

That changes everything. It's all hands on deck now. Everyone drops what they were doing. Thirteen zodiacs are launched. One remains on board – just in case. Both davits are working at full capacity. Thirteen zodiac drivers scramble to gather their gear. We quickly change into our gear too. Is our camera equipment ready? Everyone wants to be part of this. Like nervous hornets, the zodiacs swarm around the Hondius. The corridors are buzzing with people in red jackets. Muck boots thunder down the stairs to deck 3, where it's crowded with people eagerly waiting their turn. Phew, these jackets are way too warm. Two by two, the zodiacs position themselves at the shell doors. Quickly, but safely, they load their passengers – twelve at a time. Finally, we're ready. Bring it on, that polar bear!

 

 

Slowly, our fleet begins to move. In a long, orderly line, the thirteen zodiacs head south towards Ella Ø. With some effort, the polar bear is still visible in the distance as a pale dot on the slope behind Kystens Perle. But as we approach the coast, the bear is nowhere to be seen. Probably just disappeared into a dip in the terrain, the zodiac drivers try to reassure us.

 

 

The zodiacs lie in spread-out formation, awaiting events. After just about fifteen minutes, the polar bear reappears on the scene. Later, Arjen will tell us that it’s likely a female. She confidently roams around near the antenna, then begins to climb up the rocky slope. We watch her every movement, completely captivated.

 

 

Then, the thirteen zodiacs form a large circle. Like a carousel, we take turns rotating along the coast, ensuring that each zodiac regularly takes the pole position, offering everyone the best possible view of the polar bear.

 

 

The polar bear is well aware that something unusual is happening in Solitærbugt. The approach of our red-and-black fleet could not have gone unnoticed by her. The many strange sounds – excited voices and the humming of the Yamaha 60 outboard motors – must have certainly disturbed her. Above all, the strong gasoline fumes from the engines likely caught her attention. Every now and then, she lifts her large black nose, sniffing the air. Strange smells, strange sounds, strange colours – what on earth is going on here? All things considered, our presence doesn't seem to alarm her. Nothing in her behaviour indicates that she's worried or about to act differently in any way.

For more than twenty minutes, she stands there sniffing around. Is there any trash on the ground? Is there something to eat?

 

At her leisurely pace, she leaves her lookout point and descends to the base. One of the brown-red huts, a cabin with a chimney where visitors likely stay and overnight, now captures her special interest. For more than twenty minutes, she stands there sniffing around. Is there any trash on the ground? Is there something to eat? From this distance, we can’t see it very well.

 

 

Eventually, she climbs back up the slope a bit and lies down to take a nap. For us, this is the signal to leave her in peace. More than satisfied, we return to the Hondius with the zodiacs. Our expedition has lasted almost two hours.

 

The armada returns

Seal

Polar Bears: Portrait of an Endangered Species. With the title of his lecture, Arjen immediately sets the tone. He has fascinating and captivating information to share about polar bears, but there are also alarming findings that cannot be ignored.

First, a simple question: was this a male or a female? If there had been cubs nearby, the answer would be obvious. However, with a solitary polar bear, determining the sex from a distance is not so easy. Still, Arjen is convinced it was a female. He deduces this from secondary sexual characteristics. For example, male polar bears have significantly longer fur on their front legs, which likely plays a part in attracting females, similar to the mane of a male lion. However, this bear did not have such decorative fur. Additionally, the penile hair, typical of males, also appeared to be absent in this polar bear. Hence Arjen’s conclusion: this was a female.

However, she was far from a healthy female, he immediately adds. This observation surprises us, as we thought the polar bear looked relatively good. Apparently, we missed the fact that her hip bones were visible through her fur. On a scientific health scale of 1 to 5, she scores a meagre 2. With winter approaching, this is a dramatic finding. She is stuck on this island, hundreds of kilometres away from her familiar hunting grounds on the pack ice, searching for something edible among the food scraps of the base. This is truly not a promising outlook for her future.

Even when standing on all fours, polar bears are nearly as tall as an adult human

Polar bears are found almost everywhere north of the Arctic Circle, but sometimes even far to the south. For instance, scientists reported just a few months ago (2022) the discovery of a healthy, previously unknown population of polar bears in Southeast Greenland. Even around James Bay, a bay in Canada at the same latitude as Ireland, polar bears are spotted every year.

It goes without saying that polar bears are impressive powerhouses. Males weigh between 300 to 650 kg, while females weigh between 150 to 250 kg. However, this weight can vary significantly depending on the food they have recently consumed. Not often mentioned, but nonetheless telling, is the shoulder height of adult males, which ranges from 150 to 170 cm. Even when standing on all fours, polar bears are nearly as tall as an adult human.

 

Kong Oscar Fjord

That polar bears evolved from brown bears is beyond doubt. Approximately 500 000 years ago, at a time when sabre-toothed tigers, cave bears, and woolly mammoths roamed the land, brown bears gradually began to explore the far north. It seems they felt quite at home there, as these gentle, herbivorous bears slowly evolved into insatiable carnivores that sit at the top of the food chain. Their success was partly due to the fact that they faced no competitors in the Arctic.

Exchanging a temperate climate for an Arctic one is not something you do lightly. Your body and behaviour must adapt thoroughly, and that takes time – hundreds of thousands of years, to be precise.

Above all, their bodies learned to manage enormous amounts of fat. We, humans, should not attempt this

The most striking adaptation is undoubtedly the beautiful white coat of the polar bear. However, this is somewhat deceptive. In fact, its skin is black, as you can see from the bare skin on its snout. The hairs of its fur are not white but hollow and translucent, allowing the sun's warm rays to easily reach the black skin underneath. At the same time, these long hairs trap an insulating layer of air about six centimetres thick. On land, this provides perfect insulation.

Their feet developed insulating fur, and their paw pads grew into actual snowshoes with a diameter of over thirty centimetres, enabling them to barely sink into snow or thin ice. Their molars, which were accustomed to grinding plants, evolved into the long, sharp incisors of a carnivore.

Above all, their bodies learned to manage enormous amounts of fat. We, humans, should not attempt this. Before long, it would lead to fat deposits on the walls of our blood vessels, resulting in cardiovascular problems and possibly a fatal outcome. Polar bears, evidently, have no such concerns.

 

Kong Oscar Fjord

Antiklinalbugt

And that fat is essential for a polar bear. It builds up an insulating layer of fat, approximately ten centimetres thick, just beneath the black skin. Because that beautiful white fur offers no protection against the frigid waters; only a layer of fat can shield him from the cold.

All of this makes the polar bear perfectly insulated, to the extent that overheating becomes a risk if he exerts himself for too long

All of this makes the polar bear perfectly insulated, to the extent that overheating becomes a risk if he exerts himself for too long. If he runs too hard, the heat cannot be dissipated in time, even if he jumps into the water. Helicopter pilots in the north need to be aware of this. The sound of the rotors can startle polar bears to the point where they run too hard for too long, leading to overheating and death.

Gluttony is not a psychological disorder for polar bears; it is their way of life. They are the most voracious creatures in the world. Even when they are no longer hungry, they continue to eat as long as the opportunity arises. This behaviour is, of course, due to their instinct to build up as many reserves as possible in preparation for winter. It is not unusual for their body weight to increase by twenty percent if a meal gets a little out of hand.

Their preferred prey is seals, which also have a substantial layer of fat. The fattier the seal, the more nutritious it is. Sometimes, a polar bear will eat only the fat of a prey animal and leave the meat behind, much to the delight of Arctic foxes, ivory gulls, ravens, and other scavengers, who eagerly feast on the leftovers.

Gluttony is not a psychological disorder for polar bears; it is their way of life

On average, an adult polar bear consumes 14,000 calories per day. This is equivalent to about two kilograms of fat. An adult ringed seal weighs between 50 to 60 kilograms, with approximately a quarter of that being fat. This means a polar bear must catch a ringed seal every eight days, or about 45 ringed seals per year. With an estimated 25,000 polar bears in the Arctic, this means that each year, a million ringed seals end up as prey for polar bears. The fact that ringed seals are not yet endangered is solely due to their high reproductive rates.

 

Antiklinalbugt

Ringed seals are highly sought after because they are small and relatively easy to catch. However, hunting them is not as simple as it might seem. A typical hunting technique involves the polar bear waiting motionless at a breathing hole of a ringed seal. The seal must eventually come up for air, and at that moment, the polar bear only needs to grab it. Easier said than done. The polar bear must remain hyper-alert during this entire time to strike in a fraction of a second as soon as the seal’s snout and eyes appear above the water. A film crew once observed a polar bear waiting at a breathing hole for nine and a half hours before a seal finally appeared.

With an estimated 25,000 polar bears in the Arctic, this means that each year, a million ringed seals end up as prey for polar bears

Bearded seals are also on the menu, but they are five to six times larger than ringed seals, making them much harder to overpower. Belugas, with their thick layers of blubber, are mouth-watering but very difficult to catch. Walruses can be quite dangerous for a polar bear, as they can deliver powerful strikes with their long tusks. And if a polar bear does manage to catch a walrus, it must still bite through that thick skin, Arjen grins.

Since food remains available even in winter, polar bears do not hibernate. Males continue to hunt throughout the winter. The long polar night does not bother them, as they have an excellent sense of smell. Additionally, winter ice is thick, making it ideal for hunting. Females, however, retreat into a snow den for about six months, but this is not a true hibernation. Instead, winter is a time for giving birth and raising cubs.

At this moment, it is impossible to determine if the bear we observed earlier is pregnant. It is likely that one or more of her eggs were fertilized between March and June. This could have been done by one male or by two or more. If she gives birth to two cubs, they do not always have the same father.

If the mother gives birth to two cubs, they do not always have the same father

After fertilization, a few stages of development occur, but that is where it ends for now. Implantation in the uterus is postponed until October or November. If it were to happen earlier, the cubs would be born too soon and would have little chance of survival.

 

Antiklinalbugt

Six months long, the pregnant female will remain in her snow den without eating anything. As a result, she will not urinate or defecate in the den, according to Arjen. In early January, at most three months after the embryos have implanted in the uterus, the young are born. Actually, this is far too early. However, there is a very good reason for these premature births. The cubs need to get a lot of fat from their mother. She can transfer fat much more efficiently through her milk – with a fat content of no less than 30% – than through the placenta.

For two years, the young are nursed, and in total, they stay with their mother for almost two and a half years. A female bear can therefore give birth every three years. In her lifetime, she will have five to six litters, usually of one or two cubs. Less than two-thirds of those cubs survive the first year. Males have a 36% chance of becoming sexually mature, while females have a 45% chance.

This brings Arjen seamlessly back to the title of his lecture – the polar bear as an endangered species. It is very difficult to say how many polar bears there are worldwide. The global population is usually estimated at twenty to thirty thousand.

 

Antiklinalbugt

Polar bears have no natural enemies… except for humans. In 1973, unlimited hunting came to an end. A treaty between the United States, Canada, the Soviet Union, Norway, and Denmark has since prohibited any form of hunting, except when carried out by local populations using traditional methods. Annually, around 900 polar bears are still shot. If you visit Ittoqqortoormiit, the main Inuit settlement on Greenland's east coast, you will always see a polar bear skin hanging out to dry somewhere, Arjen admits.

Since the polar bear is at the top of the food chain, all toxic substances from prey lower in the food chain ultimately end up in it

But it is not only hunting that threatens the polar bear. Harmful substances such as DDT and PCBs have also reached the Arctic. Since the polar bear is at the top of the food chain, all toxic substances from prey lower in the food chain ultimately end up in it. Scientists have already determined that chlorine particles from PCBs have led to a thinner penis bone in male polar bears. This could jeopardize successful reproduction.

The threat posed by climate change is even greater. The traditional habitat of the polar bear is becoming increasingly smaller. Less sea ice means a smaller hunting area, fewer chances of catching ringed seals, fewer fat reserves, and lower survival chances… A downward spiral that currently shows no signs of ending.

Dazed, we sit back reflecting on the not-so-rosy outlook for polar bears like those at Kystens Perle when an order from the bridge comes through the intercom. Everyone outside now, the marching order says. They phrase it a bit more kindly, but that’s essentially what it means. And right they are. The Hondius is ready to explore the Narhvalsund, the narrow passage south of Ella Ø. When Nathorst passed through here in 1899, he was amazed to see a school of narwhals, hence the name.

Once again, it feels like we are leafing through a geological picture book

Bastionen

We are immediately visually overwhelmed by the Bastionen. To port, this enormous rock mass rises almost vertically above our heads. You can take that quite literally, as the Hondius sails so close that with its height of 1,367 meters, we have to look nearly straight up to see the top.

Very slowly – at a speed of about two knots – the Hondius now enters the Narhvalsund. Once again, it feels like we are leafing through a geological picture book. What we see along the shores is barely describable in words or photos.

To port, the Antiklinalbugt on the southern coast of Ella Ø slowly comes closer. This bay got its name only in the 1950s when geologists were quite impressed by an imposing anticline in the rock face. Such folds occur when an underground pressure pushes the layers of rock upward at a certain point, creating a dome with the oldest rock layers on the inside. In this case, slate and limestone alternate, with a thin layer of dolomite at the top and bottom. Fossils have been found in abundance here, particularly trilobites. Economically, such anticlines also have immense significance. Oil or natural gas often gets trapped in these domes. Worldwide, about eighty percent of all oil is extracted from such domes. Saudi Arabia can attest to that.

It is clearly visible how these basalt layers were deposited on a layer of rock and were subsequently covered by another layer of rock

Anticline

Lyell Land – Jeannet Bjerg – Basalt layers

On the other side, the 1,800-meter-high Jeannet Bjerg on Lyell Land reminds us that there was once a hotspot deep beneath the Earth's crust. Periodically, magma bubbled up from there, solidifying in the form of basalt layers. It is clearly visible how these basalt layers were deposited on a layer of rock and were subsequently covered by another layer of rock.

 

Antiklinalbugt

Tomorrow, we will briefly leave the calm waters of the fjord system, as becomes clear during the daily recap. In the morning, Adam has planned a landing and a zodiac cruise in the unparalleled Segelsällskapet Fjord. In the afternoon, the Hondius will then embark on a journey of more than twenty hours, partly through the fjords and partly over open sea, a route that will take us to Ittoqqortoormiit, located nearly three hundred kilometres to the south, the only Inuit settlement in Northeast Greenland.

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Wednesday 7 September | Kong Oscar Fjord – Segelsällskapet Fjord

Segelsällskapet Fjord

In the east, mist lies like a frayed layer of cotton candy over the water between the islands that mark the mouth of Segelsällskapet Fjord. Deeper into the fjord, where we currently find ourselves, we enjoy an unobstructed view of the stunning surroundings that encircle us on all sides. However, it is primarily the colourful rock layers of the imposing mountain range on the northern side of the fjord that draw the most attention. This is the Berzelius Bjerg, with its highest point located 1,811 meters above sea level.

 

 

A zodiac cruise will take us closer to all this beauty. Just before nine, we glide through the sun-drenched fjord under a radiant blue sky, heading north with the familiar white barrel containing a survival package on board. Here and there, misty clouds float a few dozen meters above the water's surface. Small icebergs gently bob on the water. In the warm sun, they slowly but inexorably melt away, giving rise to whimsical shapes that would not look out of place in a Salvador Dalí painting. In fact, these are not called icebergs but growlers or bergy bits. Growlers are roughly the size of a piano or a small truck, while bergy bits are a bit larger.

We now know that this multicoloured striped pattern arises from fluctuations in the Earth’s orbit around the sun

Berzelius Bjerg

 

The closer we get to the Berzelius, the more impressive the massif becomes. Ochre-coloured, brown, red, and grey rock layers adorn the cliff face in neat regularity. They reportedly contain fine-grained quartzites, mudstones, limestones, and dolomites. Remembering Tom’s wise words, we now know that this multicoloured striped pattern arises from fluctuations in the Earth’s orbit around the sun.

Down to about 100 years accurately scientists can read differences in environment, temperature, and humidity from the rock

Berzelius Bjerg

 

But these layers are not untouched. They have been folded and deformed at some point. Thus, we know they are between 600 and 900 million years old. It is this fascinating cocktail of impressions – how old this massif is, how it was formed, how overwhelmingly large it is, but especially how beautiful it is – that makes navigating in a tiny rubber boat at the foot of this enormous mastodon a very special experience.

It was not the harsh cold that caused the Inuit to leave this area during the Little Ice Age, but rather the fact that no driftwood from Siberia was washing ashore anymore

Driftwood

Glaucous gull

A glaucous gull surveys the surroundings from a boulder. Such poetic reflections are lost on this seagull; it is solely after food. Elsewhere, a bare tree trunk has washed ashore among the rocks. For the Inuit, driftwood was very important. To such an extent that scientists suspect it was not the harsh cold that caused the Inuit to leave this area during the Little Ice Age, but rather the fact that no driftwood from Siberia was washing ashore anymore.

Behind us, the Hondius has been completely swallowed by the mist

Segelsällskapet Fjord

Segelsällskapet Fjord, Berzelius Bjerg

Behind us, the Hondius has been completely swallowed by the mist. Apparently, fog has quietly moved in from the east and has now occupied the central part of the fjord. While a radiant blue sky still reigns above our heads and the Berzelius basks in the morning sun on the southern side of the fjord, our route to the north is blocked by a thick veil of mist.

Still, the zodiac drivers, in consultation with the bridge of the Hondius, will attempt to cross through the fog. After all, the misty zone is quite compact, and we are certain that we have nothing to fear from icebergs, islets, or other obstacles. Carefully, zodiac drivers Ben and Koen steer their rubber boats into the fog. It doesn't take long before we are completely surrounded by mist. The dark silhouette of Koen's zodiac, about ten meters away from us, is the only thing we can distinguish in the fog. There is no trace of the Hondius.

Only the fluffy white blanket on the water, paper-thin from this distance, reminds us of the dangerous situation there

Segelsällskapet Fjord, Berzelius Bjerg

Just a few minutes later, the snow-capped peaks of the Murchison Bjerge vaguely emerge. Visibility is now improving hand over hand, and we cautiously come out of the mist. As if nothing is amiss, the blazing sun is shining exuberantly in the blue sky. Behind us, the Berzelius rises in all its glory above the layer of mist. Only the fluffy white blanket on the water, paper-thin from this distance, reminds us of the dangerous situation there.

 

Segelsällskapet Fjord, Murchison Bjerge

 

Ten o'clock. Time for the group change. Those who landed this morning on the south coast of Segelsällskapet Fjord are now boarding for the zodiac cruise to the Berzelius. The others, just back from the Berzelius, are going ashore on the south coast to discover fascinating geological structures.

That is at least what the plan dictates. However, gradually the entire north side of the fjord has been engulfed in mist. This makes it not only dangerous but also completely pointless to cruise across. After all, you wouldn't see anything of all that beauty. Furthermore, during the walk, someone stumbled and sustained a small wound. The ship's doctor from the Hondius is already on the way with the emergency kit.

Gradually the entire north side of the fjord has been engulfed in mist

Nothing dramatic, then, but still sufficient reason for expedition leader Adam to activate a safety procedure. The situation is temporarily frozen. All zodiacs remain where they are, bobbing offshore with their passengers still on board. Those who have already landed stay where they are. Furthermore, the zodiac cruise to the Berzelius is cancelled. As soon as the situation allows, the zodiacs of the first group will return to the Hondius.

Quarter past ten. For us, everything falls back into its familiar routine, and we can go ashore. In the distance, the Hondius slowly begins to emerge from the mist. Geoscientist Annelou will guide us over the rocky terrain, which is essentially the foothill of the Linné Glacier. The glacier itself is impossible to see from here; it is located higher up between the peaks of the Murchison Bjerge.

Her scientific perspective does not prevent Annelou from being enthralled by what is visible here. In particular, the age difference excites her. And us. While the Berzelius across the way effortlessly spans a time frame of 600 to 900 million years, the rubble we are standing on is no more than a pitiful twelve thousand years old.

The colourful sedimentary layers on the other side testify to differences in environment, temperature, and humidity over a period of 600 to 900 million years. With incredible precision – down to about 100 years accurately – scientists can read those factors from the rock.

Look how stressed the yellow layer on the other side is, Annelou urges us with infectious enthusiasm. There you can best see how the rock layers have been pushed back and forth in the mountain-building process that created the current folding layers. And underwater, those ancient structures indeed do extend to this side of the fjord. However, they are much less visible at the surface here.

A perfect striped pattern of ochre-yellow limestone layers, about thirty centimetres thick, alternating with a dolomite layer a few centimetres thick

 

Yet even here, unmistakable traces of that ancient rock can be discovered. For instance, we immediately notice a remarkable brownish-red rock formation with pale grey limestone. Even more striking is the large rock formation at the waterline – a perfect striped pattern of ochre-yellow limestone layers, about thirty centimetres thick, alternating with a dolomite layer a few centimetres thick.

Clearly visible are the scratches on these stone masses, usually parallel to each other. Sometimes they are fine white lines, as if a schoolmaster wanted to draw a pattern with chalk. But it is neither vandals nor schoolmasters that have been scratching here. It was a glacier. For thousands of years, this glacier has slowly slid over these stones, carrying with it the rock debris that left behind the scratch marks.

For thousands of years, this glacier has slowly slid over these stones, carrying with it the rock debris that left behind the scratch marks

Scratches from a glacier

Yet the rock debris we are climbing over does not come from a glacier. These are not the boulders of a moraine; these are pebbles carried by river water. How did Annelou deduce that? From their distribution. If these pebbles had been dropped here by a glacier, they would be more spread out. Now they are all piled together. This is typical for a river, she concludes.

 

 

In fact, this fjord system is unique worldwide, she adds. Segelsällskapet Fjord is just one of the many side fjords of the mighty Kong Oscar Fjord. The fact that so many side fjords have formed perpendicular to this fjord, running parallel to the coast, is typical of Greenland. You won't find this elsewhere, for example, in Norway.

The fact that so many side fjords have formed perpendicular to this fjord, is typical of Greenland. You won't find this elsewhere, for example, in Norway

Horst and graben are the terms geologists use for the mechanism that created these side fjords. It started with tectonic forces trying to stretch this piece of the earth's crust in an east-west direction. Naturally, that leads to fractures. Fault lines formed in a north-south direction. Between such fault lines, the earth can sink, creating a graben or rift. In this case, the adjacent strips are uplifted, creating a horst or height. This always happens in pairs; horst and graben form an inseparable duo. If there are many such fault lines, a landscape of parallel mountains and valleys can emerge, as seen in the Belgian Ardennes, for example, or in Kong Oscar Fjord with its side fjords.

Just before noon, we are back on board the Hondius. Hardly have we stepped out of the shower when the Hondius is once again completely enveloped in mist; you can hardly see your hand in front of your face. You only have to blink your eyes, so to speak, to see that the weather has changed yet again.

 

Kong Oscar Fjord

Fortunately, this doesn't last long, and we soon leave the fog behind. We reach Kong Oscar Fjord and turn eastward. This twenty-five-kilometre-wide fjord will guide us toward the open sea. A journey of approximately twenty hours at a speed of 11.3 knots – 21 kilometres per hour – will bring us to the coast of Ittoqqortoormiit before dawn tomorrow, one of the most remote settlements in the world. We owe our welcome there to the fact that there have been no Covid infections on board.

 

Cirque

In the distance, the mountain ranges on the shore slowly slide by. They seem to be almost on the horizon, so far away they are. You don't even get the impression that you are sailing through a fjord; the navigable channel is so immensely wide. The brownish-red sedimentary rock is impressive but shows little variation. Occasionally, some sharp peaks, a glacial valley, a small waterfall, or a few remnants of snow make their appearance. Even icebergs are not on the scene.

No matter how impressive the dimensions of Kong Oscar Fjord may be, it cannot captivate us in the same way as its smaller counterparts

Kong Oscar Fjord

No matter how impressive the dimensions of Kong Oscar Fjord may be, it cannot captivate us in the same way as its smaller counterparts – Antarctic Sund, Narhvalsund, Segelsällskapet Fjord. With their rugged shapes, spectacular rock layers, rich colours, and surprising appearances, they consistently blew us away. However, in the coming days, we will experience that even immense fjords can hold surprises, albeit in a different way.

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Jaak Palmans
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Freshwater castles in the salty sea