Dust is all that remains
Mongolia | Anno 2013
Saturday, July 20 | Ulaanbaatar – Khögnö Khan Uul – Mongol Els – Hoyor Zagal
Sunday, July 21 | Hoyor Zagal – Kharkhorin – Erdene Zuu
Monday, July 22 | Hoyor Zagal – Khustain Nuruu NP – Ulaanbaatar
Saturday, July 20 | Ulaanbaatar – Khögnö Khan Uul – Mongol Els – Hoyor Zagal
The excellent asphalt road leads us almost perfectly straight westward through vast, gently rolling green steppes. Here and there, herds of horses or goats graze, and occasionally, in the distance, a ger – the typical white, round tent of Mongolian nomads – appears. Trucks loaded high with wool are parked by the roadside, ready to head toward the capital.
Our journey will take us in two stages to Karakorum, the mythical old capital of the Mongols, over 360 kilometres from Ulaanbaatar. A bus ride of over five hours through the steppes offers little variety. Thus, our guide Batmunkh deems it the perfect moment to don his professor's cap – environmental science is his specialty – and lift the veil on some of the contemporary challenges Mongolia faces.
Asphalt road Ulaanbaatar – Karakorum
To start with desertification. With the exception of Antarctica, all continents are affected by it. However, it is northern Africa and central and western Asia that are suffering the most. Desertification means that the soil becomes less and less fertile, and fewer plants grow. Where you might have counted 10 blades of grass per square centimetre in the past, now you’ll only find 9. Global warming is to blame, but so is human behaviour.
What Mongolia really needs are prolonged, gentle rains – a prospect that doesn't particularly appeal to us
Over the past sixty years, the decline in these blades of grass has accelerated significantly. On average, summer temperatures have risen by 2 °C (35,6 °F). It is estimated that 70 % of Mongolia is now dealing with desertification. At least that is what we learn from scientific observations of the amount of rainfall, the drying up of natural water sources, the way in which the nomads treat the land, the number of hours of sunshine, and so on.
July – this month, in fact – is the rainy season in Mongolia. However, most of the rainwater evaporates before it can seep into the ground. Short, heavy downpours evaporate too quickly. What Mongolia really needs are prolonged, gentle rains – a prospect that doesn't particularly appeal to us. Fertile land is scarce, and only in the north of the country are there enough rivers.
Meanwhile, on our left, vast fields of rapeseed pass by. Oil is extracted from the seeds of these yellow-flowering plants.
Drought, however, is not the only natural phenomenon troubling Mongolia, Batmunkh continues his explanation. Every ten to fifteen years, millions of locusts swarm from Siberia into Mongolia. Wherever they land, there’s not enough grass left to feed the livestock. In winter, the animals often pay for it with their lives.
The steppe mouse is another problem. From just twenty days old, it starts nibbling at the scarce grass, and after barely two months, it begins enthusiastically reproducing. It gives birth five times a year, with 12 to 17 offspring each time – a genetic nightmare. Plus, they’re hard to eradicate because they build resistance to poison.
Batmunkh subtly confronts us with our own ecological footprint
Then there’s the issue of mining. Coal, copper, and even gold are abundant in the Gobi. So everyone flocks there. But for the fragile environment, this industrial activity is a disaster.
The unpaved roads aren’t much better. For every kilometre of paved road, Mongolia has fourteen kilometres of unpaved tracks. We've already seen how these tracks tend to spread out into parallel paths. But all this traffic kicks up dust and crushes fragile plants, Batmunkh remarks, subtly confronting us with our own ecological footprint.
Even the nomads themselves no longer know how to properly care for their steppe. Grass is the foundation of every nomadic culture. In the past, nomads didn’t hesitate to move frequently throughout the summer and fall to fatten their animals while preserving their grazing lands. But nowadays, they don’t shy away from cutting grass and storing it for winter – a pure horror for a true nomad. And yet, hay provides three to seven times less protein than fresh grass.
Don’t urinate in a lake, don’t hunt during mating season, and don’t allow livestock to graze on the tender spring grass
Traditionally, a mix of education and superstition instilled the right instincts in young Mongolian children from an early age – don’t urinate in a lake, don’t hunt during mating season, and don’t allow livestock to graze on the tender spring grass. Today, Batmunkh explains, education has to take on that task – raising awareness about ecological issues and personal responsibility.
Meanwhile, we’re speeding westward, averaging just under 70 kilometres per hour. On a hilltop with the inevitable ovoo, a shamanistic structure made of stacked stones, we pause to enjoy a panoramic view of the steppe while our driver Bagi takes a short break.
After discussing the environmental challenges, Batmunkh sheds light on the lives of Mongolians. Mongolia doesn’t have a structured health insurance system, but the government does provide support for medical examinations and hospitalisations. Pregnant women also receive assistance, as the vast expanse of the country makes it desirable for the government to encourage population growth. This translates into financial support for two years after childbirth. Additionally, everyone has the right to a pension, and people with physical disabilities can rely on a modest financial allowance.
Although there is no legal discrimination against women, conservative expectations toward women still prevail, particularly in rural areas. Despite this, Mongolian society traditionally places more emphasis on educating girls than boys. The belief is that boys will manage on their own. As a result, girls are often better educated than boys. This is also true in Batmunkh’s family, where his sister has received more education than he or his younger brother.
Girls are often better educated than boys. That in turn leads to marital problems
That in turn leads to marital problems. Those clever Mongolian girls are not so keen on a nomadic – read dull – partner, and go in search of better educated men and a higher social status. That is how foreigners come into view.
Korean men, for a start. Korean society is highly competitive, so a man occasionally falls by the wayside. He then seeks out a Mongolian wife. But these women are usually better educated, which leads to tensions. A Korean man expects a wife to stay at home, which causes frustrations on both sides, and even leads to violent quarrels. Recent research has shown that 52 % of these women want to end their marriage.
There’s also no shortage of Chinese men. In China, among the 18-35 generation, there are three men for every woman, according to Batmunkh. These are spoiled children, focused solely on having male offspring. As soon as an ultrasound reveals that the foetus is of the wrong gender, they demand nothing but an abortion. Still, about half of Mongolian women who marry a foreigner end up marrying a Chinese man. In their own country, they are looked down upon for this. Sharing a bed with the historical enemy is seen as nearly equivalent to treason.
Sharing a bed with the historical enemy is seen as nearly equivalent to treason
Mongolian women account for 90 % of marriages with foreigners. However, Mongolian men also sometimes look across borders for partners, with Japanese girls being among the first to catch their eye.
From marriage to human trafficking is only a small step for Batmunkh, carefully defining its scope. He describes it as abduction for forced labour, organ trafficking, and the trade in sex slaves. Each year, 2 500 to 3 000 Mongolian women are lured to China – mainly to Beijing, Shanghai, Macau, and Hong Kong – through ads promising high wages for little work. What follows is a familiar pattern: their passports are taken, and their earnings barely cover their debts.
After five to ten years, when these young women are no longer considered marketable, they are discarded in favour of younger ones. Upon their return to Mongolia, however, they have learned the tricks of the trade and often become active in the same business themselves.
Batmunkh cynically mentions a recent case where a woman was sentenced to only six years for smuggling thirty women. In response, the government is tightening controls on advertising and raising the penalties to up to 30 years in prison. With a hint of regret, Batmunkh adds that Mongolia no longer has the death penalty.
Badarchin in the steppe
In the distance, we spot a strangely dressed man walking alone through the steppe. It’s a remarkable sight, as no sensible Mongol would leave their ger without their horse. This brave solitary figure is a badarchin, a lamaistic wandering monk who has made a lifestyle of carrying all his possessions on his back while journeying through the endless steppe. Each evening, he seeks shelter with a family in a ger. In exchange for food and a place to stay, he tells stories, and by the next morning, he sets off again on his journey.
After all, if you want to keep a people under control, wandering storytellers are the last thing you need
In the past, badarchins were the only point of contact for nomads in the remote steppe when a lamaistic ceremony needed to be performed, for example to determine an auspicious date for a trip or a wedding. When the Manchus took control of Mongolia, they attempted to hinder the badarchins from carrying out their work. After all, if you want to keep a people under control, wandering storytellers are the last thing you need. Despite this, badarchins remained a common sight in the Mongolian steppe during the 18th and 19th centuries. It wasn’t until modern times that this tradition began to fade away. Yet, as we can see in the distance, it still survives.
Rest stop in Erdenesant
The sky grows increasingly grey. From midday onwards, the inevitable raindrops begin to fall. Near Erdenesant, a rest stop appears. Driver Bagi has earned a break. On the left side of the road, there is a modern gas station, and across from it stands a row of about twenty small houses, all painted in the most diverse, bright colours – green, red, orange, and lilac. Apparently, you can get food there, though solitary truck drivers likely go for more intimate services as well.
A tanker truck bounces over the uneven ground in front of the houses. Like a strange bump, it carries a large cardboard box on top of its cylindrical tank. Inside, there turns out to be a brand-new refrigerator, most likely purchased in Ulaanbaatar. Evidently, a deal was made with the driver of the tanker truck, who agreed to transport the refrigerator.
A tanker truck… |
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…with a very special load |
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A black Subaru without a roof rack pulls up next to the tanker truck. Spontaneously, helpful men gather around the tanker, ready to lend a hand. Carefully, they lower the box from the tanker. A thin sheet of styrofoam is placed on top of the SUV's roof. Without much fuss, the box containing the refrigerator is positioned crosswise on the styrofoam. On either side of the SUV, it extends more than twenty centimetres. That's enough for the two men sitting in the backseat of the Subaru. Through the open window, they grab the packaging straps of the box with both hands. This improvised method of anchoring the refrigerator to the roof should be sufficient. The Subaru heads off to Erdenesant with its new acquisition.
Hoyor Zagal
A bumpy dirt road leads us to Hoyor Zagal, our sixth and final ger camp. From afar, the hill that dominates the camp already announces itself. It’s almost a quarter to two when the bus wobbles to a stop. With its 36 gers, the camp provides everything we need, but it can't hide the fact that it has seen better days. The lampshades in the restaurant are adorned with the carcasses of several generations of flies, and birds have found their way into the beams above the dining tables. For the moment, the awnings on the roofs of the gers are being opened, as it apparently rained here earlier as well.
Ger – Interior |
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Opening an awning after the rain |
As far as the eye can see, all the way to the mountains, the grass steppe stretches out around the camp. This grass happens to be the favoured spot of bush crickets. Originally, they have been known as long-horned grasshoppers. That name comes from the ovipositor, which protrudes from the female's abdomen like a sword, somewhat resembling the stinger of a scorpion. However, this ovipositor isn't dangerous; it's only used for depositing eggs into the ground. Despite their name, long-horned grasshoppers are not actually grasshoppers but belong to the cricket family.
The ovipositor protrudes from the female's abdomen like a sword, somewhat resembling the stinger of a scorpion
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Bush cricket or long-horned grasshopper |
Just fourteen kilometres from here lie two monasteries, steeped in a rich history, according to Batmunkh, as they’ve been destroyed twice. It wasn’t just the Bolsheviks who went wild here in the 19th century. Before them, the Western Mongolian Oirats had already razed the site.
To understand this, we need to go back to the 17th century. At that time, a certain Zanabazar held power in the heartland of Mongolia. For us, he might be an unknown figure, but here he’s known as the Michelangelo of the Steppe, one of Central Asia’s greatest artists, and even a direct descendant of Genghis Khan. From this lineage, he had risen to become both a religious and political leader. However, his leadership was under pressure. To the west, the Oirats – distant ancestors of Batmunkh’s mother – had set their sights on Central Mongolia, while in the east, the Manchus in Beijing were also eyeing territorial expansion.
Both monasteries are steeped in a rich history, according to Batmunkh, as they’ve been destroyed twice
In the end, it was the Oirats who pressed their claims. In 1640, under the leadership of Zungar Galdan Bogichtu, they invaded Central Mongolia, only to find that everyone – Zanabazar included – had fled, likely to Inner Mongolia. This enraged Zungar so much that he ordered the destruction of anything related to Buddhism.
Naturally, the two monasteries were also on the Oirats' blacklist. However, the monks had anticipated the threat. Although their monasteries were hidden behind the mountains, the gleam of the golden wheel on the temple roof could still give away their presence. So, the monks carefully covered the wheel, allowing the enemy troops to march past without noticing the monasteries.
But in a moment of premature euphoria, the monks removed the covering too soon, making it easy for the Oirats' rear guard to locate the monasteries. All the monks were strangled with the ropes used to tie animals for milking. When it comes to macabre details, Batmunkh is quite accurate.
That insight may have saved the temple from a second destruction
Khögnö Khan Uul – Erdiin Khambiin Khiid (in the distance)
Meanwhile, we have entered the 46 900-hectare Khögnö Khan Uul natural park (116 000 acres). In front of us lies Khögnö Khan, the only granite mountain in the region. A little later, we arrive at Erdiin Khambiin Khiid, or what remains of that monastery. High on the mountainside, we spot a small temple. Closer by, there is a restored building that now serves as a small museum. The ruins of Övgön Khiid lie hidden high up in the mountain, out of sight. Altogether, it doesn't immediately strike us as particularly impressive.
Erdiin Khambiin Khiid – Temple of Heaven (above), small pavilion and ruins of the main temple (below)
The fact that the Temple of Heaven clings high to the rocks is no coincidence. During meditation, the monk's soul must be able to easily ascend to the heavens. That insight may have saved the temple from a second destruction. When the Bolsheviks rampaged through the area in the 1930s, they left the Temple of Heaven untouched.
Temple of Heaven |
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Zanabazar – Thangkas |
Perhaps they were daunted by the steep climb. For us, however, that's not an issue. So we bravely begin the ascent. It turns out to be slightly more challenging than expected, not least because we can't find the right path.
Above, our efforts are rewarded in the temple with copies of several thangkas, religious paintings on rollable canvas, attributed to the master Zanabazar himself. For safety reasons, the original pieces have been moved to the National Museum of Ulaanbaatar.
Ruins of the main temple
The bird's-eye view of the site enhances our appreciation positively. The sandstone ruins of the main temple dominate the valley. Trees that have grown in the ruined sanctuary over the past centuries are adorned with colourful ribbons.
Dharmachakra with two deer |
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Alta |
Then, somewhat unexpectedly, Alta appears. She’s the granddaughter of one of the murdered monks and the driving force behind the restoration of the monastery. Proudly, she reveals her life's work to us, her eyes sparkling under her Reebok cap.
Then, somewhat unexpectedly, Alta appears. She’s the granddaughter of one of the murdered monks
She starts with the small temple of the bodhisattva Vajrasattva, known in Mongolia as Bazarsad. Bodhisattvas are a type of saint in Buddhism; they strive to assist others on the path to enlightenment. Vajrasattva helps the believer with purification. It’s enough to take a glance into his temple and then walk clockwise around it, and behold, all your sins are forgiven.
Temple of Bazarsad
In the centre of the small museum stands an altar. Countless thangkas of Buddhist protector deities are hung against the walls.
Temple of Bazarsad – Prayer Hall |
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Yamantaka, the sternest of the protector deities, is even present with an impressive statue featuring nine heads, sixteen arms, and thirty-two feet. His favourite goddess is entwined in yab-yum against his chest – a representation of mystical union.
White Tara |
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Yamantaka in mystical union (yab-yum) |
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Green Tara |
From her thangka, the Green Tara gazes at us. Of all the taras, she is the strongest and will fulfil all our wishes. The White Tara, on the other hand, grants us a long and peaceful life. Notice the feet of the taras, Alta says, they are pointed downward. This signifies that these female bodhisattvas are accessible to ordinary people. They are always ready to offer help.
Mongol Els
Meanwhile, it is approaching six o'clock. Still, we decide to head down to Mongol Els. The expansive steppe, the mountains on the horizon, and the peculiar tarn trees give this place a unique character. So unique, in fact, that Khögnö Khan Uul owes its protected status as a national park to it. These tarn trees are found nowhere else but in Mongolia, and they are used to make medicinal herbs.
Tarn tree |
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On horseback from a young age |
Shortly after seven, we are back at the ger camp Hoyor Zagal. Ink-black clouds are approaching from the southwest, but they gracefully move eastward over the mountains to the south, leaving our camp untouched.
Hoyor Zagal at full moon
Sunday, July 21 | Hoyor Zagal – Kharkhorin – Erdene Zuu
Sunbeams skim low between the tents. A steel-blue sky adorned with a few clouds welcomes us upon awakening. Today, Kharkhorin dominates our itinerary. This city, with 14 000 inhabitants, is located on the banks of the Orkhon River, which at 1 124 kilometres is the longest river in Mongolia. The city owes its mythical aura to the proximity of the ruins of Karakorum, the legendary capital of the Mongols. However, we are quickly warned by Batmunkh not to expect too much from those ruins, as there is literally nothing left to see.
The city owes its mythical aura to the proximity of the ruins of Karakorum, the legendary capital of the Mongols
Karakorum, or Black Wall, was founded by Genghis Khan, but he was far too busy conquering the world. As a result, Karakorum was little more than a storage place. It wasn’t until Genghis Khan's son, Ögedei Khan, that the site began to develop into a city. Three khans ruled there for the next forty years. Not only was Karakorum the administrative capital of the empire, but it also served as an important trading centre, as the city lay on one of the many branches of the thriving Silk Road.
Karakorum welcomed both Giovanni Carpine and William of Rubruck within its walls, two European missionaries who made the long journey to Mongolia in the 13th century. Marco Polo, on the other hand, never set foot in the city, which did not prevent him from elaborating on it extensively in his fabulous work, Il Milione.
Marco Polo never set foot in Karakorum, which did not prevent him from elaborating on it extensively in his fabulous work, Il Milione
Kublai Khan viewed things somewhat differently than his grandfather Genghis Khan. Completely captivated by Chinese culture, he made Khanbaliq – modern-day Beijing – his capital in 1260 and established the Yuan dynasty there. This marked the beginning of the decline of Karakorum. Gradually, traders on the Silk Road bypassed Karakorum and headed directly to Xi’an. When the Yuan were overthrown by the Ming in 1368, the Mongols returned to Karakorum with their tails between their legs.
Ovoo… |
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…with offerings |
Eight stupas along the road have captured our attention. In 2006, they were reportedly erected by the local population to celebrate the 800th anniversary of the Great Mongolian Empire. From a ridge, we gaze out over the dreary steppe beneath the low grey clouds. A large ovoo actually marks the boundary point of three provinces – Bulgan, Arkhangai, and Övörkhangai. At the base of the ovoo, we find Buddhist figurines as offerings – altars, horses, and more. Most of the figurines rest on a banknote.
Twice, the armies of the Chinese Ming pushed into Karakorum, Batmunkh continues as Bagi smoothly drives westward along the straight asphalt road. The second time, their patience wore thin, and they levelled the capital of the Mongols to the ground. This marked the end of the constant threat from the nomads, who had made life difficult for the Chinese for two millennia. From 1586 onward, the stones of the destroyed city were used to build the nearby Erdene Zuu Monastery.
This marked the end of the constant threat from the nomads, who had made life difficult for the Chinese for two millennia
In 1639, the Mongols moved their capital to the area around Ulaanbaatar. However, nomads remain nomads. They would change locations another twenty-five times before the capital finally settled at its current location by the Tuul River.
While ancient Karakorum may have been reduced to an empty plain, modern Kharkhorin still serves as the crossroads of two important routes that traverse the country from east to west and from north to south. Its historical significance attracts a considerable number of tourists. In 2004, a portion of the Orkhon Valley was even designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Additionally, the Turks and Uyghurs left traces of their presence with the ruins of Khöshö Tsaidam and Khara Balgas, located several dozen kilometres further north.
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Thunpa Punshi – The Four Harmonious Friends |
The morning sun generously spreads its rays over the steppe as driver Bagi takes a rest just before nine. A stone version of Thunpa Punshi – an elephant, a monkey, a rabbit, and a partridge as Four Harmonious Friends – stands seemingly abandoned along the road.
The Mongols had caused quite a panic in the West with their brutal conquests and the destruction of cities like Kiev and Krakow
As Batmunkh explains, Europeans had already ventured out to establish contact with Mongolia in the 13th century. He isn’t even referring to the inevitable Marco Polo, but rather to Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, who was sent on an exploration by Pope Innocent IV. The Mongols had caused quite a panic in the West with their brutal conquests and the destruction of cities like Kiev and Krakow. The Pope wanted to know how far the ambitions of the Mongols extended and what accounted for their unparalleled success.
The diplomatic mission led by Carpine was tasked with finding out how the Mongols organised their army and state, establishing trade between the two continents, and – who knows – possibly forging an alliance with the Mongols. The West had been at odds with Muslims for several centuries, so having an ally against them would certainly be advantageous. Additionally, if Carpine could convert some souls for Christianity along the way, that would be beneficial too – after all, he was a priest.
Buddhists, Muslims, and Nestorian Christians even organised theological debates without any resulting conflict
As a heavyset elder of 65, always seated on a donkey, Carpine must have been a dream figure for contemporary cartoonists. Without much trouble, he asked for and received permission from the Golden Horde to travel from Rome through present-day Russia to Karakorum. There, he met Güyük, the third khan and grandson of Genghis Khan. He spent two years in the Mongolian capital, only to be astonished by the peaceful coexistence of Buddhists, Muslims, and Nestorian Christians. They even organised theological debates without any war resulting. Carpine could immediately dismiss any hopes of converting the Mongols to Christianity.
Carpine gained access to the court, had discussions with Güyük, and presented him with a letter from the Pope, in which the Pope expressed his grievances about the troublesome incursions of the Mongols, which had caused so much unrest in the otherwise peaceful and Christian Europe. The Pope suggested that they should really consider putting an end to that behaviour.
Güyük's response left little to be desired in terms of clarity. If the Christians were to resist, they would meet the same fate
Güyük's response left little to be desired in terms of clarity. With the blessing of the blue sky, the Mongols are destined to rule over an empire that stretches from sunrise to sunset, he wrote in his reply. If the Christians were to resist this, they would meet the same fate as other peoples who had already dealt with the Mongols.
Carpine's mission could hardly be deemed a resounding success. However, he was the first European to bring accurate information about the Far East, as Batmunkh noted.
After Carpine, the Franciscan William of Rubruck appeared at the Mongolian court. This time, it was the French king Louis IX who sent out the explorer, with the primary goal of persuading the Mongols to form an alliance against the Muslims. He spent two to three years in Karakorum, engaging in numerous discussions with the khan. His travel account, Itinerarium fratris Willielmi de Rubruquis, would grow into one of the masterpieces of medieval literature. Yet, like Carpine, he failed in his geopolitical mission. The Mongols felt, not without justification, that they were superior.
To this day, they have not forgotten their illustrious descendant in French Flanders. Every year, William of Rubruck's birthplace, Rubroeck, located about halfway between Dunkirk and Saint-Omer, hosts a Grand Naadam, a sporting event complete with Mongolian wrestlers, archers, and horse riders. In 2013, this spectacle takes place on July 21 – coincidentally, today.
There was an immediate connection between Kublai Khan and Marco Polo to the extent that Marco Polo carried out many assignments for him
Eventually, Marco Polo appeared on the scene, the most famous of all world travellers. He travelled with his father and uncle to the court of the khan, which had by then moved from Karakorum to Beijing. There was an immediate connection between Kublai Khan and Marco Polo, to the extent that, at the khan's request, Marco Polo stayed at his court for seventeen years and carried out many assignments for him. This provided him with a wealth of information, particularly about daily life in China, Korea, India, and Southeast Asia.
Kharkhorin – Erdene Zuu Khiid – Monastery wall with stupas (east of entrance)
In Europe, war had meanwhile broken out between Venice and Genoa. For the world traveller Marco Polo, this must have seemed like a ridiculous tribal dispute upon his return. However, that did not prevent Genoa from imprisoning him as a born Venetian. There, he dictated the account of his adventures to his fellow prisoner Rustichello da Pisa. Many contemporaries regarded Il Milione as the fantasy of a self-satisfied fool. The numerous myths and fables interspersed throughout the book likely contributed to this perception.
The comfortable asphalt road has long since made way for a pothole-ridden track. Just before ten, the bus wobbles through the city gate of Kharkhorin. In the distance, Erdene Zuu Khiid basks in the sun, one of the oldest Buddhist monasteries in Mongolia.
The monastery soon became a reference point for Buddhist teachings in the wider area
Erdene Zuu Khiid – Western Gate
About fifty vehicles are estimated to be in the parking lot. It's not really busy yet, judges Batmunkh. So we first head to visit the monastery, stepping through the western gate. Immediately, we are overwhelmed by the immense size of the complex.
And Nasaa, our local guide, knows all about it. A wall measuring 1 600 meters surrounds the gigantic site, we learn. Each side has 25 oversized stupas, and there are two more at each corner – 108 in total, a sacred number for Buddhists. It was Abtai Sain Khan, grandfather of Zanabazar, who had the monastery built in 1586. With the ruins of the destroyed Karakorum just a stone's throw away, it didn’t take long to find building materials.
Kharkhorin – Erdene Zuu Khiid – Monastery wall with stupas (west of entrance)
The monastery soon took off. It became a reference point for Buddhist teachings in the wider area. No fewer than 62 temples were built within its walls, and in the 19th century, around 1 500 monks lived in three hundred gers. In 1939, the Bolsheviks brutally ended that peaceful community. Only 18 buildings survived the fury. Just a few years later, in 1944, the site was protected. Today, about forty monks still reside there.
On our way to the Zuu temples, we pass by the Tsamba, a smaller temple founded in 1675 in honour of the fifth Dalai Lama. Three large temples rise above a walled terrace that is meant to represent a turtle – the turtle symbolises a long and peaceful life. The central stairway to the terrace represents the head of the reptile, while we must imagine a front paw in each of the side stairways. With a bit of imagination, that works well.
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Two stupas flank the central staircase. The left stupa is dedicated to Abtai Sain Khan, the founder of the monastery, while the right one is dedicated to Tüsheet Khan Gombodorj, the father of Zanabazar. So, political leadership was in Zanabazar’s blood.
The upper structure and roof of the three temples are entirely made of wood, without using a single nail, Nasaa assures us. They are dedicated to three phases of the Buddha's life – youth, adulthood, and old age.
Western Zuu Temple (Baruun Zuu)
Maitreya, Sakyamuni and Kassapa (not in picture) |
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Scenes from the Jataka |
As is fitting, the western temple, Baruun Zuu, is dedicated to old age. Here we find a towering statue of Sakyamuni, the living Buddha, seated on a throne. Maitreya and Kassapa, the Buddhas of the future and the past, flank him. To the left, Nasaa points out an image of the great reformer Tsongkhapa, while to the right, 18 scenes from the Jataka, the life stories of the Buddha, are depicted. Countless images of Amitabha, the bodhisattva of long life, adorn the ceiling. Here they call him Ayusha.
The cookies look more than decent, considering they date back to 1965
Balins (ritual cookies) |
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Guardian God |
It's a bit crowded in the temple, but we still manage to take a look at the display case with the famous balins, the ritual cakes made of wheat dough decorated with colourful medallions of goat or sheep fat. The cookies look more than decent, considering they date back to 1965.
Central Zuu Temple (Buddha Zuu)
Central Zuu-temple |
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Tsongkhapa |
Buddha Zuu, the central temple, is the oldest of the trio. It dates back to 1586. Here, too, Sakyamuni is central, but this time he is flanked by Ayusha and Manal, symbols of paradise and medicine. Offerings are laid out before Sakyamuni, while two of his favourite disciples keep him company.
Gombogur |
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Arhats |
Sinister is the large mask of Gombogur, the black Mahakala, a wrathful deity who watches over the observance of norms and rules like a strict father.
Eastern Zuu-temple
The eastern temple, Zuun Zuu, is dedicated to youth. Here, Sakyamuni is flanked by Avalokiteshvara and Tsongkhapa.
Chinese frescoes – Lute player |
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Women |
Once, the two side pavilions at the foot of the temple terrace served for prayer and meditation. Beautiful 18th-century murals adorn the walls, intended to keep the monks focused during their prayers and meditation. In the eastern pavilion, we recognise a bodhi tree, the tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment. Five goddesses represent the five senses – sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. There is also a depiction of a peacock, known for eating poisonous insects without being harmed itself – an obvious hint that evil can be eradicated.
A peacock eats poisonous insects without being harmed itself – an obvious hint that evil can be eradicated
Furthermore, several thangkas are displayed. The fact that so many thangkas and cham masks were saved from the Bolsheviks is thanks to the local people. At that time, they hid the precious objects at great personal risk.
Mongolian frescoes |
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(Clothing and weapons of) Gombogur |
Also depicted on the wall are utensils and attributes of the Gombogur. It's a strange sight – the wrathful deity is shown in full regalia, weapons at the ready, but his face, hands, and feet are missing. The Gombogur himself is not depicted at all. He is considered too terrifying.
Ordinary people, like you and me, are positioned on the fourth step
A fresco illustrates a staircase with seven steps leading to a blue square – representing nirvana. Ordinary people, like you and me, are positioned on the fourth step. If we do well, we return as a life form on a higher step. If we do poorly, we fall to the level of animals or plants.
Mongolian Frescoes – Horse and camels |
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Similar motifs adorn the walls of the western pavilion – again, those unsettling attributes of the Gombogur – but this time the paintings are more distinctly Mongolian in nature. This can be explained by the fact that these artworks were only added in the 19th century, even though the building dates back to 1675.
A Buddhist god of hunting really is a paradoxical concept
A particularly strange thangka is an appliqué depicting the god of the hunt. A Buddhist god of hunting really is a paradoxical concept. The righteous Buddhist holds too much respect for life to eat meat or to kill living beings, let alone to actively hunt animals for sport. However, Nasaa counters our concerns by explaining that Buddhism and shamanism have always been intertwined in Mongolia, and on this point, they align. Nomads only hunt to survive.
Altan Stupa
Through a light drizzle, we continue our journey northward. Passing the large white Altan Stupa and the small temple dedicated to Avalokiteshvara, we arrive at the grand white Laviran Temple.
Laviran Temple
Only this temple is still in use, and that doesn’t go unnoticed, as about fifteen monks are inside chanting loudly.
Laviran Temple – Dharmachakra with deer
They rhythmically recite their sutras from long, narrow strips of paper. One of the youngest monks is tasked with selling a green powder, a homemade, mind-expanding product. The buyer receives a tiny bag of water so that he can get started right away.
Laviran Temple – Prayer Hall |
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Erdene Zuu Khiid – Bixi with blue khadag at the northern gate |
Through the northern gate, we leave the temple complex and venture out into the pouring rain in search of the bixi, the renowned stone turtle that once bore a stele with inscriptions. Karakorum used to have four such monuments, one at each corner of the city. About three hundred meters further, we find it: the breast-high stone colossus adorned with a khadag, a blue ceremonial scarf around its neck.
An empty, pockmarked landscape stretches around us. The foundations of Karakorum must still lie beneath the ground, but there is almost nothing visible on the surface. Dust is all that remains of the Great Mongol Empire and its founder. No city, no fortress, no mausoleum, not even a grave remembers their exploits.
Dust is all that remains of the Great Mongol Empire and its founder
As we make our way back through the monastery complex to the bus, the sun breaks through the clouds again. Two Flemish motorcyclists cross our path by chance. They have ridden their bright yellow DRZ400 Safari motorcycles from Belgium to this spot over the past ten weeks. Until October, they plan to continue touring, including a trip to Beijing, before selling their motorcycles and flying back to Belgium. Originally, they had intended to return by motorcycle, but that would mean riding all the way back through Iran. They want no part of that, as the roads there are as flat as a billiard table – a true nightmare for motorcyclists, to say the least.
For lunch, Batmunkh takes us to Urguu Camp, located about seven kilometres from Kharkhorin. There, we are served, among other things, shölte khool shölte khool, the Mongolian version of meal soup – a hot broth with boiled mutton, pasta, and potatoes.
Karkhorin – Great Imperial Map Monument
High above Kharkhorin, the Great Imperial Map Monument rises majestically. Bagi skillfully navigates his bus up the winding path. Erosion gullies carve deep scars into the muddy sandy tracks. Nevertheless, Bagi manages to reach the parking lot at the top of the hill with his bus.
Orkhon River |
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Karkorin |
At our feet lies the Orkhon River, winding like a silver ribbon around the ridgeline, eventually joining the Selenga River, which will flow into Lake Baikal. On the other side of the ridge stretches Kharkhorin, with the distant Erdene Zuu Khiid gleaming in the background.
To celebrate the 80th anniversary of the founding of the Third Reich, Angela Merkel unveils a similarly grandiose monument on the Obersalzberg in Berchtesgaden
In 2006, the 800th anniversary of the founding of the Great Mongol Empire was commemorated. The Mongols must have felt this was reason enough to erect a grandiose monument on a hill near the former capital of their empire. The centrepiece of the monument is a colossal ovoo, surrounded by three segments of a monumental cylindrical wall. Each segment displays a giant mosaic map depicting the empire's largest territorial expansions during the times of the Huns, the Turks, and the Mongols under Kublai Khan.
We cannot believe our eyes. For a moment, we try to imagine a parallel: to celebrate the 80th anniversary of the founding of the Third Reich, Angela Merkel unveils a similarly grandiose monument this summer on the Obersalzberg in Berchtesgaden. Mosaic maps illustrate the greatest territorial extent of the German Empire during the First and Second World Wars. The uproar would be immense – not only in Europe but globally. Batmunkh, however, can’t quite grasp our comparison. For him, the conquests of the Great Mongol Empire are a source of national pride.
The conquests of the Great Mongol Empire are a source of national pride
Bagi, tired of the tricky uphill drive, tries a different route down the hill. But it goes wrong. The rear right wheel sinks into one of the deep erosion gullies. The bus's chassis is even resting on the ground at the back. A shovel would come in handy here, but unfortunately, that tool isn't part of the standard equipment in a Mongolian bus.
Erosion gullies… |
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…demand their victim |
Undeterred, Bagi gets to work with a set of jacks. Although their height is far from sufficient, he knows how to make do. He raises the chassis until there's space under the rear wheel, then wedges some stones beneath it. He lowers the wheel onto the stones, freeing the jack. Next, he places a wooden block under the jack and raises the chassis again to add a second layer of stones. As the pile under the wheel grows, so does our hope that we might actually get out of this predicament.
From her house at the bottom of the hill, a woman has noticed our misfortune. Without hesitation, she climbs up the slope toward us. We could really do without a disaster tourist at the moment. But that's not her intent – in her right hand, she’s holding a precious item: a real shovel. In the Mongolian steppes, solidarity seems inversely proportional to population density.
In the Mongolian steppes, solidarity seems inversely proportional to population density
With the shovel, Bagi easily digs out the earth in front of the wheel. Moments later, the bus wriggles free from the rut with a little push and much applause. The entire ordeal lasts less than half an hour.
Afterwards, we head to the brand-new Kharkhorin Museum, where local artefacts are beautifully displayed. The exhibits cover the Stone Age and Bronze Age, as well as what they call the ancient states – Huns, Khitan, Uyghurs, Turks, and, of course, the Great Mongol Empire.
Within a stone's throw of one another, we see Islamic mosques, Buddhist temples, and a Nestorian Christian church
The Bronze Age burial monuments, with their upright flat stones, resemble miniature Stonehenges. The model of ancient Karakorum brings the Mongols' religious tolerance to life – within a stone's throw of one another, we see Islamic mosques, Buddhist temples, and a Nestorian Christian church. In the mid-13th century, this city was home to an estimated ten to fifteen thousand people. What surprises us is that these stone houses were equipped with underfloor heating, a remarkable feature for that time.
Kharkhorin Museum – Treasures of Shoroon Bumbagar – Warrior |
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Mythical animal |
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Warrior |
But it’s the temporary exhibition of the treasures from Shoroon Bumbagar that draws the most fascination. This tomb of a Turkish nobleman from the 7th century was only unearthed in 2011. A mound of earth in the shape of a ger, with a diameter of 25 meters, marked the entrance to the tomb. From there, a 42-meter-long corridor, adorned with more than forty wall paintings, led down to the burial chambers – 7,5 meters below ground level. Hundreds of artefacts were found in two side chambers, now on display in the museum. We marvel at dozens of clay figurines, each with a unique face and attire, metal utensils, golden jewellery, and even coins from distant Byzantium.
Treasures of Shoroon Bumbagar – Female figure |
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Female figure |
Treasures of Shoroon Bumbagar – Male Figure |
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Female figure |
We take one last look at the wide Orkhon River from the bridge before setting off on our return journey at half past five. It takes Bagi thirty-five minutes to cover the 16 kilometres of unpaved road leading to the toll station. From there, we drive smoothly through the steppe.
Once again, Bagi takes his rest stop at the Thunpa Punshi stones. As if to confirm Batmunkh's earlier discussion about the omnipresence of the steppe mouse, dozens of mice scatter in all directions as soon as we step off the bus.
Dark grey rain clouds chase us from the west, but they fail to release their burden above us. Just before eight, we reach Hoyor Zagal. By ten o'clock, however, the rain finally begins to fall.
Monday, July 22 | Hoyor Zagal – Khustain Nuruu NP – Ulaanbaatar
A grey blanket of clouds fills the sky. After an early breakfast, we set out on the road to Ulaanbaatar at half past six. Still, there's a sense of unease. No one has sprinkled milk over the wheels of the bus this morning – a traditional Mongolian offering to the sky spirits to ensure a safe journey. Let’s hope this turns out well.
No one would remember Nicolai Przewalski today if it weren’t for a curious discovery during his 19th-century travels through Mongolia. This Belarusian colonel and explorer was gifted the skull and hide of a peculiar horse. Upon returning to Russia, he realised this was no ordinary horse. Its skull was larger, its body more robust, its tail shorter, and its legs had zebra-like stripes. Nowadays, we also know that these horses have 66 chromosomes, unlike the typical 64 in modern horses.
The skull was larger, the body more robust, the tail shorter, and the legs had zebra-like stripes
Mongolians call these horses takhi, while we have known them since then as Przewalski’s horses. According to Batmunkh, they are the only truly wild horses left in the world. At the start of the 20th century, they were nearly extinct, with hunting being a significant cause. Livestock herders were particularly unhappy about these wild horses mingling with their domesticated herds. Around 1900, a few wealthy collectors rushed to a remote corner of the Gobi Desert to catch the last few specimens.
One of these horses ended up languishing in the Prague Zoo. In 1970, it caught the eye of a Dutch woman, Ina Bouman, who was there on her honeymoon with her new husband, Piet Wit. Without hesitation, they decided to dedicate their lives to the preservation and breeding of these Przewalski horses.
Unfortunately, that first group of horses didn't survive the harsh winter, but Ina Bouman persisted
In 1992, after considerable effort, the first twelve Przewalski's horses were finally reintroduced into the wild. A year later, the Khustain Nuruu National Park was established in the region. Unfortunately, that first group of horses didn't survive the harsh winter, but Ina Bouman persisted. She oversaw the release of additional horses in three key areas: Khustain, the southwestern Gobi, and western Mongolia. Today, around 280 Przewalski's horses thrive in the hills of Khustain. Since a viable population can be sustained with 50 individuals, the horses of Khustain are now well-established.
The Khustain project encompasses more than just horses. It protects the entire ecosystem, including wolves, bears, and deer, while also engaging the local population in conservation efforts. The locals benefit through involvement in sustainable tourism programs, such as living with nomads experiences, which are offered to visitors.
As the ride to Khustain continues, Batmunkh dons his professor's hat one last time to talk about Mongolia’s education system, a subject on which he has little praise. The system consists of four years of primary school, followed by four years of lower secondary education, and finally, four years of upper secondary education. However, teachers are poorly trained and earn a meagre salary of just around 225 euros per month.
Badin Gol
As we near the Badin Gol, an imposing herd of about a hundred horses is wading through the water. The sight is picturesque, and for a moment, the discussion about the Mongolian education system takes a backseat.
Badin Gol |
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So teachers look for better-paying jobs, we learn a little later. For example, they might open a shop or start a career as... a tour guide. If you want to pursue higher education in Mongolia, you must take an entrance exam. If you score 650 points, you qualify to become a teacher. If you score 860 points, medical studies are in sight. So, teachers are actually seen as losers.
You see, that's what happens, no milk was sprinkled on that tire this morning
Just before half past seven, a loud bang startles us. Bagi pulls the bus over and goes to investigate. The inner tire of the left double wheel has failed. You see, that's what happens, no milk was sprinkled on that tire this morning. No worries, there’s a gas station just nine kilometres ahead. Bagi will be able to replace the tire there.
Teachers are very low on the social ladder in Mongolia, Batmunkh continues unfazed. In China, on the other hand, teachers are about on the same social level as doctors. They earn good money and are desirable partners in the marriage market. Batmunkh has personally witnessed this in Harbin, China, where he studies environmental science, as we glean from between the lines.
The situation at university is possibly even worse than in secondary education. Year after year, students do not take exams; they procrastinate everything until the final year. Paying professors for good grades during exams is common practice.
Paying professors for good grades during exams is common practice
University costs 750 euros per year, the technical college 1 050 euros, and a medical program 1 200 euros. Students can apply for a subsidy of 45 euros per month, but a recent academic study – anonymously, of course – has shown that more than half of that money goes to alcohol and drugs.
Rest stop in Erdenesant |
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The gas station makes its appearance, and Bagi gets to work replacing the defective wheel. He removes the outer wheel, only to discover that the inner wheel is held in place by a different type of screw. He doesn’t have the right wrench for that. He asks around among a few drivers and stops a jeep, but no one can provide him with the correct key. There’s nothing to do but leave the defective inner wheel as it is and reattach the outer wheel. That realisation has cost us three-quarters of an hour. Bagi will be forced to complete the remaining 218 km more slowly than before.
Batmunkh isn’t done yet with his critique of the Mongolian education system. Companies no longer have confidence in higher education diplomas. They require recent graduates to work on probation for three months so they can see what kind of talent they have.
Teaching materials, audiovisual media, and computers are virtually nonexistent in the classrooms. The common practice consists of teachers reading from a book while students write down what they think they heard. Recently, however, an experimental program has started that Batmunkh refers to as the Cambridge system – 30 % theory and 70 % experiential learning.
A handful of private schools offer solid education, often in collaboration with Britain or Japan. Well-paid foreign teachers teach subjects such as English and Japanese there. It’s no surprise that such schools are extremely expensive. For the British School in Ulaanbaatar, you have to pay € 9 750 each year, leading to elitist education.
Nevertheless, secondary education is not without reforms. In 1992, Batmunkh was even a privileged witness to such a reform process, although he prefers to call himself a victim of it. The emphasis on education in Russian and English was so high that he no longer learned Mongolian and received too little mathematics and science. He later had to catch up on that deficit.
There is no oversight of the curricula or the quality of education
With just three million inhabitants, the country has as many as 628 colleges, institutes, and universities. Such fragmentation leads to significant quality loss. Private schools far outnumber public ones, as setting up such a school in Mongolia is incredibly easy. There is no oversight of the curricula or the quality of education. Lawyers and economists are trained in droves, but the country has no need for them, according to Batmunkh. What the country needs is technicians.
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With a cruising speed of 50 kilometres per hour, we continue our journey eastward. Our schedule is under serious pressure. With over 80 kilometres to go to Ulaanbaatar, we turn onto the dirt road leading to Khustain Nuruu National Park at a quarter past eleven. We have two objectives left on our wish list: to spot at least one Przewalski's horse within the next three-quarters of an hour and then have lunch. Hopefully, the rear wheel will hold up on the unpaved tracks.
But our binoculars mercilessly reveal the true identity of the dots – they're ordinary cows
Barely twenty minutes later, it's bingo. On the slope across the valley, black dots seem to be behaving in a horse-like manner. But our binoculars mercilessly reveal the true identity of the dots – they're ordinary cows.
Driving through the large gate, we enter the park and continue our search. Another fifteen minutes later, it's bingo again. High on a slope, we spot four horses. We quickly run up the hill, only to realise, panting, that it's cows again.
We're having no luck. Slippery tracks, a limping bus, and time constraints make our goals nearly impossible. Then we cross paths with two jeeps. The occupants claim to have seen two (2) Przewalski's horses a few kilometres ahead. Undeterred, Bagi drives his limping bus down the slippery mud track after them.
Khustain Nuruu – Przewalski’s horse |
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Bush cricket or long-horned grasshopper |
And indeed, in extremis, we suddenly spot a vague dot in the distance – one (1) Przewalski's horse. Cautiously, we try to approach on foot. The horse remains unaware of our presence. However, a jeep with loud Mongolians cannot be contained and gets too close. The horse takes off and disappears behind a hill. We head to Hustain Restaurant at the park gate, where a buffet has been prepared for us.
On the outskirts of the capital, our last ride through the boundless steppes of Mongolia is smothered in police checkpoints and traffic jams. Ulaanbaatar and Mongolia remain two completely different worlds.
Jaak Palmans
© 2024 | Version 2024-10-18 14:00
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