Imperial Cities

Morocco | Anno 2011

 

Friday 15 April | Erfoud – Zaida – Cedar Forest – Meknes

Saturday 16 April | Meknes – Volubilis – Moulay Idriss – Fez

Sunday 17 April | Fez

 

 

Friday 15 April | Erfoud – Zaida – Cedar Forest – Meknes

We leave behind the desert-like south of Morocco and cross the mountains once more, heading north. In the coming days, nature will give way to culture in our experience. The fact that the sky is heavily clouded for the first time upon waking doesn’t bother us much. Nor does the fact that our guide Aziz shaved his head last night. Not that he had a lush mane before, but it does take some getting used to.

Just before eight, driver Muhammad steps on the gas for a journey of more than four hundred kilometres along the N13, crossing both the High Atlas and the Middle Atlas. Plenty of time for a lecture, you can almost hear Aziz think. For example, on the Western Sahara. From 1884 to 1974, it was known as the Spanish Sahara, but when the Spaniards withdrew in 1975, King Hassan II was quick to annex the region to Morocco. Overnight, the country grew by half. That the area is rich in phosphates was a nice bonus.

Hassan II didn’t expect much resistance from the local Muslims and nomads. After all, the population density is roughly two people per square kilometre. But he was in for a surprise. The Polisario Front, which had previously clashed with the Spanish, now turned its sights on Morocco. And Mauritania, too, wanted a piece of the region’s natural wealth.

In 1975, King Hassan II was quick to annex the Western Sahara to Morocco

The International Court of Justice in The Hague examined the case and, in 1975, concluded that the region needed to be decolonised. In other words, Spain had no legitimate claim there. However, neither Morocco nor Mauritania had historically exercised any authority over the area. This left only the right to self-determination, meaning a referendum would determine what the people wanted.

Of course, no one understood better than Hassan II what the people of Western Sahara truly wanted. So he had 350,000 Moroccans march into the region. Impressed by this Green March – and also somewhat swayed by the promised fishing rights – the Spanish relented. Two-thirds of Western Sahara went to Morocco, and one-third to Mauritania. Under international law, this can be considered an occupation.

In the meantime, we have reached the Tafilalt, Morocco's largest palm oasis. Here, along a strip 30 km long and 5 to 15 km wide, there are as many as 800,000 date palm trees. If you combined all of Morocco's palm oases into one area, you’d have 84,000 hectares (208,000 acres).

With the long bus ride ahead, Aziz seizes the opportunity to explain Morocco's history in detail. As is well known, it was the Phoenicians who made the first mark around 1100 BCE by settling along Morocco’s coast. Around 500 BCE, they were expelled by the Carthaginians, who were in turn forced to leave by the Romans in 146 BCE.

The Romans intended to stay – at least that’s what they thought. Along the North African coast, they established two provinces, Mauretania Caesariensis and Mauretania Tingitana, roughly corresponding to present-day Algeria and Morocco. From then on, Morocco became Rome’s bread basket, supplying grain, slaves, and wild animals.

For the Romans, Morocco was a bread basket and a supplier of slaves and wild animals

In 25 BCE, the Romans crowned Juba II as king of all Mauretania. This Berber ruler would remain on the throne until 23 CE, almost half a century. His capitals were Volubilis in Morocco and Caesarea, present-day Cherchell in Algeria.

At the start of the 5th century, decline began. First, the Vandals drove the Romans out in 435, and then the Berbers expelled the Vandals in 446. For over two centuries, Morocco was a loose collection of Berber kingdoms.

In 683, the Arabs made their first appearance, and in 711, a second campaign led to the full conquest of the land. After half a century of skirmishes, Moulay Idriss managed in 788 to wrest the land from the Caliph of Baghdad. Thus began the Idrisid dynasty.

However, the spread of Islam was not the primary concern of the Idrisids, which greatly annoyed religious leaders in the remote southern deserts. In the mid-11th century, they launched a holy war against what they called heretics. The Idrisids had to yield to these Almoravids, who founded their capital Marrakesh in 1062, and by 1079, the Sunni doctrine was established throughout the country.

From then on, Morocco was under the sway of Islam. But even that wasn’t enough for the fundamentalist Almohads. In 1140, they overthrew the Almoravids and laid the foundation for the most powerful dynasty ever. By the end of the 12th century, under Yacoub El Mansour, the empire reached its greatest extent – stretching eastward to Tripoli and south to the Senegal River.

The ‘Alawis claim direct descent from the Prophet, including the current king, Mo-hammed VI

Yet, the Moroccan throne remained a revolving door. In 1248, the Almohads were replaced by the Marinids from Algeria. Fortunately, we owe some of the most beautiful madrasas in the royal cities to the Marinids.

In 1548, the Marinids were then defeated by the Saadians, a tribe that once again advanced from the deep south to the centres of power. However, the Saadians claimed a special status, calling themselves sharifs – direct descendants of the Prophet Muhammad.

In 1666, the ‘Alawis took power, and they have remained in control up to the present day. These ‘Alawis also claim direct descent from the Prophet, including the current king, Muhammad VI. The most legendary of the ‘Alawis – remarkable for multiple reasons – was Moulay Ismail, the only king ever to choose Meknes as his capital.

In 1912, the protectorate was established – a euphemism for the colonial occupation of the south and far north by Spain and the rest of the country by France. Uprisings, strikes, and attacks ultimately led to independence in 1956, when King Muhammad V returned to power. In 1961, he was succeeded by his son, Hassan II, and in July 1999, his grandson Muhammad VI took the throne, where he remains to this day.

Agriculture is of paramount importance in Morocco, as more than half the population relies on it. Nevertheless, over four out of five plots are smaller than five hectares (twelve acres) and are still cultivated by hand. Wheat and barley are the primary crops, while vegetables come mainly from Agadir and its surroundings. Olives and dates are produced largely for export.

Livestock farming in Morocco is always secondary. Those who keep animals do so as a supplement to agriculture. In the north, it’s mainly sheep and cattle; in the south, goats and dromedaries.

Cows are mostly imported from Europe. They can’t handle the heat, so they stay in barns all day, feeding on alfalfa clover. If you do see cows in the fields, they’re likely crossbreeds between European and local varieties. However, with the outbreak of mad cow disease, European imports completely collapsed, replaced by the black-and-white Holstein breed from the USA.

Livestock farming in Morocco is always secondary. Those who keep animals do so as a supplement to agriculture

To ease the burden on poor farmers and fishers, they are exempt from paying taxes. In practice, however, it’s primarily large landowners who benefit from this policy. Aziz notes that changes are on the way to address this.

Rain, moreover, plays a crucial economic role in Morocco. When rainfall is plentiful, economic growth can reach 5 to 6%, and the reverse is also true.

We have now arrived in Errachidia, at an altitude of 800 meters with a population of 113,000. At this hour, only the grocers in the local souk have their shops open.

The city is also an important military post, with a substantial stock of tanks in the local barracks. After all, Algeria is just 140 km to the east, and relations between Algeria and Morocco have been strained for a long time. Algeria’s support for the Polisario in Western Sahara has been a bitter point for Morocco. The border between the two countries is tightly closed. Even oil or natural gas is no longer imported; Morocco prefers to source it from distant Kuwait or Saudi Arabia rather than Algeria. A sand wall separates the two countries, with radar installations and high-tech equipment closely monitoring the border. There are no skirmishes, but that’s the only positive aspect, Aziz admits.

 

Ziz Valley

Through the Ziz Valley, our driver Muhammad ascends into the High Atlas. On the right, Aziz points to the Hassan Addakhil reservoir, built in 1968 with support from the Russians. It generates 550 MW. The water irrigates 15,000 hectares of farmland (37,000 acres), with even Rissani, 75 km to the south, receiving its share.

Above all, Morocco is a land of contrasts, Aziz continues. Take the climate, for example. There are maritime, continental, and desert climates, influenced by four mountain ranges, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Mediterranean Sea. On average, the mountains receive 800 to 1,200 mm of rainfall per year. But in the south, it’s less than 100 mm.

The chergui, a dry, hot wind from the east, can raise the temperature by 10 °C in no time. The gharbi, on the other hand, is a cool, moist westerly wind that can quickly drop the temperature to just above freezing.

In rural areas, tradition and religion hold sway. Family is of utmost importance, and parents are sacred

Not only does Morocco’s natural landscape showcase contrasts, but culturally, Morocco is also a land of contradictions – north versus south, city versus countryside. In rural areas, tradition and religion hold sway. Family is of utmost importance, and parents are sacred. Three to five generations often live together under one roof. Among Arabs, the eldest man leads the family, while among Berbers, it is the eldest woman. Aziz points out that Arab women are still often suppressed by men, while this is certainly not the case among the Berbers.

Families take care of their sick, elderly, or unemployed relatives. There are nursing homes, even free ones, but they stand empty. Only those elderly with no family support seek shelter there. Unemployment benefits are not available.

Arranged marriages are still the norm in rural areas, Aziz notes. The parents of the young man search within the tribe and the village for a suitable bride – sometimes without the young man’s knowledge. Only when everything is settled are the young people informed. Love, the parents say from experience, will come naturally with time.

Divorce, however, is possible. In such cases, the woman keeps the children, and the man pays for their upbringing. If a son or daughter wants to remarry after a divorce, the parents will not interfere again – once is enough.

While traditions vary by region, the general process is as follows. A week before the wedding, the parties go to a judge. They present medical reports, as the judge wants to ensure that both candidates are physically and mentally healthy. This examination is mandatory and is by no means a mere formality. The judge will also ask whether the candidates have been married before or have children. If no objections arise, he issues a license. With this license, the group proceeds to two notaries – one drafts the marriage certificate, and the other acts as a witness.

 

Ziz Valley

Three days before the wedding, the groom goes with his friends to the hammam for a cleansing ritual, and the bride does the same with her friends. Then, the groom's parents visit the bride's parents to present the dowry – goats, jewellery, and other treasures.

On the day of the celebration, everyone is up early. The festivities last from around nine in the morning until late into the night – both at the groom’s and bride’s homes. Everyone is welcome, even strangers, as hospitality is sacred to a true Muslim.

Above all, Morocco is a country of contrasts

After midnight, the anticipation builds. Around one or two in the morning, the bride, mounted on a horse, heads to the groom's house. She is accompanied by a procession of friends, family, and dancers. Everyone joins, except her father, who stays behind. The celebration continues until the groom and bride withdraw to a bedroom, where several determined aunts stand guard at the door. The groom is expected to promptly present proof of his bride’s virginity.

If he provides this proof, he takes it immediately to his father-in-law, who then rejoins the party and rewards his daughter with a precious gift in gratitude, as a daughter’s virginity on her wedding night is a great source of pride. If no proof is presented, however, chaos ensues. The celebration stops immediately, and by the next day, the groom may seek a divorce and reclaim the dowry.

This tradition is still practiced in rural areas, Aziz notes, but not so much in cities, where young people generally choose their own partners.

 

Fouma Zaabal Tunnel

Meanwhile, Muhammad continues his ascent through the impressive Ziz Valley, going deeper into the High Atlas. Bare, pale-brown rock walls tower high above the blue river as it flows through a broad, grey riverbed. Shortly after ten o’clock, we reach the Fouma Zaabal tunnel, excavated in 1931 by legion soldiers and still considered important enough to warrant modest military surveillance. At the other end, a truck that was loaded much too high appears to have become stranded in front of the tunnel opening. The nervous driver is on the phone, trying to get instructions.

 

Middle Atlas

An hour later, we crest the 1,997-meter-high Camel Pass, crossing over the High Atlas. Just fifteen minutes later, we roll into the green valley between the High Atlas and the Middle Atlas, sitting about 800 meters above sea level. Clumps of halfah grass, or esparto grass, dominate the steppe landscape. This tough, sinewy grass is used to make paper, baskets, and ropes.

 

Zaida

Midelt, located at the foot of the 3,737-meter-high, snow-capped Jebel Ayachi, is the only notable place in this area. And that is still a relative concept. Besides the fact that the apple festival takes place here in September and that this is, alongside Meknes, one of the few places in Morocco where you can still find a convent of Franciscan nuns, Aziz can't think of much else to tell about Midelt.

 

Catering to impatient travellers looking for a quick bite is just part of the daily routine here

 

Shortly after twelve, we stop in Zaida, a junction of roads at the foot of the mountains. Various restaurants compete for our favour, and we ultimately settle in at restaurant Melouiya for our unannounced lunch. We can count on this taking hours, but no, just three minutes later, steaming tajines are placed in front of us – the cheapest, quickest to prepare, and one of the tastiest we’ve had so far. Catering to impatient travellers looking for a quick bite is just part of the daily routine here.

 

Zaida

Only the Middle Atlas now separates us from our destination. Around half-past one, Muhammad begins the ascent. As usual, Aziz rattles off some relevant dimensions – this mountain range is 680 kilometres long, 80 kilometres wide, and rises up to 3,350 meters.

A new phenomenon emerges – green pastures with grazing animals. We are pleased to discover that Morocco offers more than just rocks and desert sand. Olive trees grow in these mountains, along with carob trees, green oaks, pistachio trees, and cedars.

 

Sheep farm

We owe the word carat to the carob tree, Aziz explains. The mass of the carob fruit – keration in Greek – is almost precisely the same worldwide, specifically 200 milligrams. This made the tiny seeds extremely suitable for precise mass measurements, particularly for gold. The fruits can also be processed into vitamin-rich flour and even serve as a cheap alternative to chocolate.

Long ago, wild animals could still be found in the Middle Atlas – elephants, lions, and leopards

Long ago, wild animals could still be found in the Middle Atlas – elephants, lions, and leopards. The last lion was killed in the 1930s, and leopards have not been seen for over twenty years. Nowadays, the wildlife consists mainly of Barbary sheep, wild boars, desert foxes, gazelles, hares, and especially Barbary macaques. The latter are of the same species as the monkeys found in Gibraltar. Of course, there are also snakes, scorpions, and other such creatures around.

 

 

It takes Muhammad barely fifteen minutes to reach the summit of the 2,128-meter-high pass. The area is of volcanic origin, and we drive through a barren landscape without trees. Here and there, flocks of sheep graze. Patches of snow manage to cling to the blue-grey slopes of the mountains in the distance.

 

Like pillars in an immense cathedral, the majestic cedars rise high above us

The famous cedar forest makes its appearance about 75 km south of Meknes. It’s time to stretch our legs a bit. The formidable Barbary macaques are nowhere to be seen.

 

Barbary macaque

Like pillars in an immense cathedral, the majestic cedars rise high above us. They can grow up to forty meters tall, with the oldest specimen estimated to be around 800 years old. These straight trees are significant for the Moroccan economy, but they are somewhat particular about their habitat. They thrive only at elevations between 1,100 and 2,300 meters. Nonetheless, Morocco boasts an area of 140,000 hectares of cedar forests (346,000 acres).

 

Little Barbary macaque

Upon our return, a handful of Barbary macaques gather around Muhammad's bus. Eagerly, they eye our trinkets. Snatching oranges is a breeze for them – they grab them from our hands before we even realise it. They have no trouble peeling them either.

 

The Middle Atlas is sometimes referred to as the water tower of Morocco

Gradually, we descend to the Saïss plain between the Middle Atlas and the Rif Mountains, by far the most fertile area of Morocco. The Middle Atlas is sometimes referred to as the water tower of Morocco. The effect of this influx of water is visible everywhere. In the green orchards, trees showcase their white blossoms. In the fields, young green ears of corn and red poppies sway gently in the wind. It's hard to imagine a greater contrast with the stony desert we encountered this morning.

We descend into the plain via Azrou, still 1,250 meters above sea level. Steep roofs on houses are not uncommon in the Azrou area. At this altitude, winter temperatures can sometimes drop to –20 °C (–4 °F). Rain is replaced by snow then, and one must be well-prepared for that.

 

 

Our first encounter with the imperial cities is about to begin. A city can only be called an imperial city if it has served as the permanent residence of a king or sultan. Four cities can lay claim to this title. In chronological order, these cities are Fez, Marrakesh, Rabat, and Meknes. Each imperial city has its own colour as an epithet: Fez the Blue, Marrakesh the Red, Rabat the White, and Meknes the Green.

Four cities can lay claim to this title – Fez the Blue, Marrakesh the Red, Rabat the White, and Meknes the Green

Meknes only came into existence from the 10th century onwards, when Berbers began to settle here. Ultimately, only one sultan would rule from Meknes, but what a sultan he was. Moulay Ismail was undoubtedly the most powerful and cruellest sultan to ever reign over Morocco. This contemporary and great admirer of Louis XIV sat on the throne for 55 years, from 1672 to 1727.

 

Irrigation is not necessary here to harvest rich crops of wheat, barley, broad beans, chick-peas, or lentils

As befits a sultan, the good fellow had many hobbies. First and foremost was building. In total, he had 76 palaces erected. Waging war was another one of his hobbies. At all times, he maintained an army of 150,000 soldiers, including 30,000 slaves and 3,000 Christian prisoners. With unstoppable enthusiasm, he constantly clashed with Arabs, Berbers, and Ottomans. However, he was the only one in North Africa who managed to keep the Arabs at bay.

Personally dealing with opponents was yet another hobby of the sultan. Legend has it that he personally killed 20,000 people with his sword – which seems like a labour-intensive hobby to us.

Moulay Ismail also had a vision for the future. He had forty thousand slaves brought from Black Africa – 20,000 men and the same number of women. The boys born from this human breeding ground were trained to be part of his personal guard. To this day, descendants of this black guard work in the royal palace.

Moulay Ismail would have liked very much to have added Anne-Marie de Bourbon, daughter of Louis XIV, to his harem

Women certainly cannot be left out of the sultan’s list of hobbies. In addition to four lawful wives, he kept around five hundred concubines at his disposal. He would have very much liked to add Anne-Marie de Bourbon, daughter of Louis XIV, to that list. However, France was not on board with that idea. To avoid disappointing the sultan too much, they instead sent him two standing clocks.

Just before five, we check into our hotel in Meknes, not far from the air force base. So, it’s likely we’ll be woken up by jet fighters in the morning. Belgian jet fighters, Aziz adds with a wink, because they like to come here to practice. In Belgium, they’re not allowed to fly that low.

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Saturday 16 April | Meknes – Volubilis – Moulay Idriss – Fez

The imperial city of Meknes is not on our agenda yet. Through a landscape of low, rolling green hills, we drive due north under a cloudless sky. The green scenery reminds us once again that the Saïss plain is the granary of Morocco. It is easy to imagine that the Romans also appreciated this fertile region.

Irrigation is not necessary here to harvest rich crops of wheat, barley, broad beans, chickpeas, or lentils. However, it is the olive trees on the slopes that Aziz draws our attention to. There are as many as 33 million of them throughout Morocco. The harvest runs from September to March. It doesn’t matter what colour the olives are – green, pink, black – they all come from the same type of tree. It is the ripeness of the olives that determines their colour. Olives that are going to be pressed are left hanging until they fall from the trees. Olives that will be preserved, on the other hand, are picked more quickly.

Oil from the first pressing was intended solely for cooking by the Romans. The second pressing yielded oil that was useful for massage or as medicine for animals. What remained was used as fuel for lighting.

 

Volubilis

Gradually, the ruins of Volubilis emerge on one of the rolling hills, the most important Roman site in Morocco and one of the most significant in North Africa.

It was King Juba II who made the Berber settlement Walili the capital of Mauretania Tingitana, renaming it Volubilis. Today, not much remains of the city that once counted ten to twenty thousand inhabitants. The catastrophic earthquake in Lisbon in 1755 and the plundering by the construction-maniac Moulay Ismail reduced most of it to ruins.

However, it is primarily the magnificent floor mosaics that give Volubilis its well-deserved fame. The unique setting in a rolling green landscape, seemingly stolen from Tuscany, further enhances its charm, especially with the sporadic presence of dark green cypress trees.

It is primarily the magnificent floor mosaics that give Volubilis its well-deserved fame

Floor mosaic – Diana in the bath

Local guide Hassan takes us to the eastern end of the city. Among knee-high remnants of walls, he points out a beautiful floor mosaic depicting a naked Diana in a bath, restored in 1982. Nevertheless, this 800 m² house is called the House of Venus, named after the statue that was excavated here and now graces the museum in Rabat.

The owners of this house were certainly not impoverished. In an adjacent room, the mosaic tells the story of Helios, who gazed too deeply into a glass of wine and had to be rescued from the water by a nymph.

It must have been a busy scene on this main street, with shops on both sides

Volubilis – Decumanus Maximus

Via the Decumanus Maximus, we descend towards the heart of the city. To the left once stood the working-class district, while the administrative district was on the right. Behind us in the distance, the Gate of Tangier rises. The large central passageway accommodated carts, while the two smaller ones were for pedestrians.

It must have been a busy scene on this main street, with shops on both sides. Waste was removed as best as possible through the Cloaca Maxima, the main sewer of the city, located about two meters beneath the street pavement.

 

At that time, the grand houses must have been jostling for position here

Time has not yet taken its toll on the natural colours

Hassan leads us into the residential district. At that time, the grand houses must have been jostling for position here. The House of Dionysius is a striking example – a modest residence of 2,000 m² with a beautiful triclinium. In a Roman dining room, three reclining couches were always arranged – hence the name triclinium. Fat Romans would lounge there with their guests at the table. In the triclinium, it was all about impressing your guests.

 

Medusa

With mosaics like these, that must have certainly succeeded. We recognise the representations of the twelve months of the year, as well as an image of Medusa. Time has not yet taken its toll on the natural colours. This is partly thanks to the layer of earth under which they lay hidden for centuries. Restoration was not even necessary.

 

Labours of Hercules

In the triclinium of yet another modest house of 2,000 m², twelve oval medallions glorify the Labours of Hercules – we recognise the snakes, the three-headed dog, and the Augean stables. Square panels contain allegorical representations of the four seasons. A lily motif adorns the four corners of the floor, and a geometric pattern frames the whole. Three different styles are interwoven here – the Berber style, the Christian style, and a mixed form.

 

To this day, Berber motifs from the floor mosaic can still be recognised in Berber carpets and Berber tattoos

In the remnants of a public bath, we recognise the seat-shaped niches where free citizens sat side by side while slaves massaged their backs. Bathing was a social activity for the Romans.

According to Hassan, there were about 20,000 slaves in Volubilis. In addition to the pure slaves who were used for heavy labour – in quarries, in the fields, and so on – there were also local Berbers and eunuchs who performed only household tasks.

 

Niches in bathhouse

Atrium of the Palace of Juba II

The House of the Horseman, measuring 1,500 m², derives its name from the equestrian statue that was found there. Berber motifs adorn the floor mosaic of the triclinium – to this day, these motifs can still be recognised in Berber carpets and Berber tattoos.

Little remains of the palace of Juba II – Moulay Ismail eagerly reclaimed the marble floor for his own constructions. A few short stumps in the atrium remind us of the columns that once stood there – the House of Columns, as the former palace is also called. The central fountain is gone, and the walls of the atrium have been restored.

Where the Decumanus Maximus meets the Cardo Maximus, we find ourselves in the heart of the former city. The forum, Capitol, basilica, and baths are all within reach. This is the best-preserved part of the city. We owe this preservation to the layer of earth that covered these buildings for centuries.

 

Triumphal Arch of Caracalla

In 217, the Triumphal Arch of Caracalla was erected at the intersection. Once, four fountains must have adorned this monument. The accompanying medallions representing the four seasons are still faintly discernible.

The Basilica still has a wall with impressive arches standing, as well as a few columns. A pair of storks has taken advantage of this to build a nest there. For the Romans, the Basilica served as a market hall and a court building. Only from the 4th century onward would Christians assign it a purely religious function.

 

For the Romans, the Basilica served as a market hall and a court building. Only from the 4th century onward would Christians assign it a purely religious function

Forum and basilica

A handful of empty pedestals remind us of the statues that once adorned the forum. From the Capitol, only the wide steps and a few columns of the vestibule remain. Here, the Capitolian triad – Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva – was venerated.

With an area of 2,500 m², the Gallienus baths of Volubilis were the largest in Morocco. For the ancient Romans, a visit to the baths typically began in the cold bath or frigidarium. From there, one would move to the tepidarium, a warm acclimatisation room without water. Ultimately, you would end up in the caldarium, the hot bathing area.

Water was brought from the mountains via an aqueduct. Forty channels distributed the water across the city districts. Daily, 500 to 1,000 litres of water per person were consumed in Volubilis, according to Hassan.

A man riding backwards on a donkey is what a mosaic would have us believe. However, the unusual scene depicts a desultor, an acrobat who made a specialty of performing tricks on galloping horses.

 

Acrobat on donkey

Thematic signpost

Hassan is not shy about a joke. With a mysterious smile, he announces the highlight of our visit – La surprise de Volubilis, or The surprise of Volubilis. Not without some sense of drama he unveils a signpost in the form of a large male member, which points the way to the place where the prostitutes are waiting. What we remember most is that the male inhabitants of Volubilis were quite well-endowed.

 

 

In principle, Islam does not recognise saints, but exceptions are sometimes made for descendants of the Prophet Muhammad. For example, for Moulay Idriss, the founder of the Moroccan monarchy. The city where he is buried and which is named after him is therefore a holy city. Until a few years ago, Moulay Idriss was even off-limits to non-Muslims after sunset.

Until a few years ago, Moulay Idriss was even off-limits to non-Muslims after sunset

Moulay Idriss

Moulay Idriss – Entrance to the mausoleum

Having a holy city nearby has its advantages. If you don’t have enough money to make the hajj to Mecca, you can simply undertake a mawsim, a pilgrimage to Moulay Idriss, for seven consecutive years in September. At least, that's the popular belief, but Aziz has his doubts about that.

 

Moulay Idriss

From a height, we look down on the pilgrimage site. Amidst an impressive green backdrop, the white houses spread out like a waving carpet over two hills. In between, the emerald-green pyramid roof of the mausoleum rises. For non-Muslims, that area is off-limits. However, that doesn’t stop us from exploring the rest of the bustling town for a while.

 

Tajine dishes

Back in Meknes, driver Muhammad drops us at the foot of the medina. Every Moroccan city worth its name has an ancient part known as the medina. What lies outside the city walls typically dates from the French colonial period and is called Ville Nouvelle. We climb to the Zitouna restaurant via Bab Tizimi. Behind a very simple facade, a rich interior once again reveals itself. The monumental dining room reaches four stories high.

Every Moroccan city worth its name has an ancient part known as the medina

Meknes – Fortification Wall

Pastilla is what we’re here for, an authentic Moroccan specialty. These are square parcels of puff pastry, sprinkled with powdered sugar and marked with a cross of cinnamon. Inside, we discover three layers – finely chopped chicken, crushed almonds, and egg. Intriguingly delicious, but oh so heavy on the stomach.

 

Pastilla

Tea pourer

Outside, the local guide Abdul is already waiting for us, ready for a solid walk through the old city. Abdul sees it as his most important contribution that no one in the group gets lost. So you’ll always find Abdul at the back of the group, while Aziz takes charge up front.

 

Meknes – Restored Medina

Since 1996, the historic centre of Meknes has been recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage site. This designation secured a budget of 74 million euros from UNESCO, which has been used to meticulously restore the alleyways, façades, and lighting of the medina – perhaps even a bit too clinically at times.

Its sinister name – The Death – stems from the old practice of displaying the heads of executed criminals here as a deterrent

Strolling through the alleyways, we arrive at El Hedim, the bustling heart of the city. Its sinister name – The Death – stems from the old practice of displaying the heads of executed criminals here as a deterrent.

 

Bab Mansour

Aziz calls the beautiful Bab Mansour the most impressive gate in Morocco, adorned with intricate relief work and green ceramic tiles. Meknes owes its name as the Green City to this very gate. During construction, they conveniently borrowed the columns from the ancient site of Volubilis.

 

Morocco lives up to its reputation as the sweet capital here

In every imaginable colour, shape, and variety, cookies, sweets, trinkets, and snacks are displayed

 

We dive into the souk, making sure our guide Abdul can still keep up with us. Morocco lives up to its reputation as the sweet capital here. In every imaginable colour, shape, and variety, cookies, sweets, trinkets, and snacks are displayed – enough to try a different treat every day for a year. Artfully stacked olives, dates, and citrus fruits strive in vain to outshine the confections.

 

Meknes – Souk

In Morocco, only two mosques are open to non-Muslims: the grand Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca and the Great Mosque of Meknes. Aziz quickly clarifies that this restriction has nothing to do with religious intolerance. In fact, it was the French occupiers in 1912 who imposed the ban after witnessing inappropriate behaviour by their soldiers in mosques. The law, established by French Resident-General Hubert Lyautey, remains in effect today.

Here, however, nothing prevents us from entering the Great Mosque – shoes off, of course. Dating back to the 17th century, the mosque features exquisite materials like stucco, cedar wood, and Carrara marble in abundance, all chosen for their quality and beauty.

 

 

Aziz pauses by the tomb of a princess – not to share any remarkable story about her, but rather to illustrate the difference between our Gregorian calendar and the Hijri, or Islamic, calendar. According to the inscription, this princess lived from 1328 to 1366 in the Hijri calendar, which translates to 1908 to 1946 in the Gregorian system – a difference of only 580 years instead of the expected 622.

The Islamic year count will eventually catch up with the Gregorian one, projected to align in the year 20874

The Hijri calendar began in 622 CE, marking the Prophet Muhammad’s migration to Medina. Over the centuries, this difference has shrunk by 42 years and will continue to decrease. This discrepancy arises because the Hijri calendar is lunar, with each year being 11 days shorter than the solar-based Gregorian calendar. As a result, the Islamic year count will eventually catch up with the Gregorian one, projected to align in the year 20874.

 

 

Aziz reminds us that a devout Muslim is expected to pray five times a day: at sunrise, midday, halfway between noon and sunset, at sunset, and before going to sleep. Forgetting isn’t an option, as the muezzin will always call the faithful to prayer. Prayers can be offered at home or at work, so there’s no strict need to visit the mosque. And if one can’t pause their work for prayer, they’re expected to make up for it later in the evening.

Ideally, each prayer begins with a ritual washing, though, as Aziz notes, few Moroccans strictly observe this nowadays, leaving the mosque’s central fountain somewhat underused. The mosque’s twelve columns, once again sourced from Volubilis, stand as silent witnesses to history.

The mihrab, a prayer niche in one wall, indicates the direction of Mecca and serves as a kind of natural amplifier for the imam’s prayers. Every Friday, the minbar, or pulpit, is brought out for the weekly sermon.

 

 

Men and women attend prayer services together but are seated separately – typically with men at the front and women at the back, never the other way around. Aziz notes that a female imam is completely unthinkable, except, he adds with a hint of cynicism, in the USA, where everything seems possible.

Every Thursday afternoon, the Ministry of Islamic Affairs distributes the official text for Friday’s sermon

After prayer, the imam remains available for lessons, discussions, or even a kind of collective confession. Imams and muezzins are paid by the Moroccan government, Aziz emphasises, allowing the state to maintain oversight of mosque teachings. Every Thursday afternoon, the Ministry of Islamic Affairs distributes the official text for Friday’s sermon. From the capital to remote desert villages, the same state-approved sermon is delivered in every mosque – an example, Aziz points out, of how closely religion and state are intertwined. Interestingly, Christian priests are also on the government payroll.

 

Against the wall, we can see the famous standing clocks that the rejected sultan received as a consolation prize from Louis XIV

The mausoleum of Moulay Ismail is off-limits for us, but we are allowed to catch a glimpse inside. There are four graves – Aziz points them out from left to right: the grave of the sultan's first wife, the sultan himself, and two of his sons. Against the wall, we can see the famous standing clocks that the rejected sultan received as a consolation prize from Louis XIV.

 

 

With that, we conclude our visit to the mosque, not without calling Abdul back – at the entrance of the mosque, we had lost sight of him. A sultan like Moulay Ismail, who clashed with just about everyone during his reign, had to be prepared for various scenarios – a prolonged siege of Meknes, for instance. Thus, it was essential to stockpile enough supplies for the soldiers and their horses, and, if possible, for the city’s inhabitants as well. One of the granaries the sultan had built for this purpose is Heri Souni. The grain and hay stored in this granary were meant to sustain the city through a two-year siege.

 

Underground granary of Heri Souni

The gigantic storage rooms are strikingly cool. With a hanging garden on the roof and walls that are six meters thick, this shouldn't be surprising. Additionally, there was a sophisticated underground water cooling system in place. Aziz leads us to one of the norias. Heri Souni had a total of twelve such watermills. They were powered by horses and lifted water through a network of underground channels that cooled the storage facilities. This water came from the adjacent Agdal basin, which spanned four hectares (ten acres) and collected rainwater from the Middle Atlas.

 

Agdal basin

With its thick walls and vaulted ceilings, the granary stood firm when the city was hit by the infamous earthquake of 1755. This was not the case for the adjacent stables, which could accommodate twelve thousand horses. The roof, featuring a hanging garden where the sultan's harem could enjoy themselves, collapsed under the tremors.

 

Horse stables of Heri Souni

It's half past four when we continue our journey to Fez, our next imperial city. Historically, this was actually the very first imperial city, as Moulay Idriss II established himself here in 807.

Like Meknes, Fez lies in the fertile Saïss plain, about 400 meters above sea level, at the foot of the Rif Mountains. Of its two million inhabitants, 400,000 still reside in the old, walled medina. This is no small feat, as the medina has managed to retain its almost medieval character. The alleyways are so narrow that motorised vehicles are prohibited. Only mules are allowed as a means of transport. A cry we will hear often tomorrow is Belek! Belek! – Get out of the way! – as mules have the right of way.

The medina is home to one of the oldest universities in the world, founded in 859 by Fatima al-Fihri, the daughter of a wealthy businessman. The medina is still regarded as the cultural, intellectual, and even gastronomic capital of Morocco. Many ancient trades are still practiced here. In short, Aziz indulges himself in saying that tomorrow we will visit the most beautiful medina in Morocco, and indeed, in the entire Arab world.

In short, Aziz indulges himself in saying that tomorrow we will visit the most beautiful medina in Morocco, and indeed, in the entire Arab world

Shortly before six, we look down at the bustling city from our hotel. In the distance, plumes of black smoke rise above the skyline. There's no need to worry, Aziz reassures us. Those are the kilns of the potters.

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Sunday 17 April | Fez

It is barely a quarter past five when the muezzin's first call to prayer sounds across the city. We don't want to hear that, as it will take almost four more hours before we will climb aboard Muhammad's bus.

Our local guide Khadija is already waiting for us then, along with Aziz, who is wearing a white djellaba today. A djellaba is distinguished from a gandora and a kaftan by the pointed hood attached to it.

Not one city lies at our feet here, but three cities, from three different eras – Ville Nouvelle, Fez el Djedid and Fez el Bali

Fez with fortress wall

For a first introduction to the city, Khadija takes us to Borj Sud, the southern fortress. She demands our attention assertively; she does not tolerate any murmuring – what a difference from Abdul. Not one city lies at our feet here, she begins, but three cities, from three different eras.

In the distance to the left, she points out Ville Nouvelle, the youngest of the three cities, which only emerged after 1912 under the French protectorate. Christians, Muslims, and Jews live peacefully together there, Khadija states.

 

Fez

More toward the centre, we see Fez el Djedid, the 15th-century district of the Marinids, featuring the royal palace and right next to it, the Jewish mellah. At that time, the Jews were under the high protection of the sultan – which, by the way, cost them a pretty penny.

In Ville Nouvelle Christians, Muslims, and Jews live peacefully together

Straight ahead of us lies the oldest part of the city, Fez el Bali, the historic medina from the 9th century. A wall of 14 kilometres still surrounds the old city. Some emerald-green domes stand out prominently in their surroundings. These form our agenda for today, Khadija briefly lists them: the mausoleum of Moulay Idriss, the mosque of al-Qarawiyyin, and the mosque of Sidi Ahmed al-Tijani.

 

Fez

When Moulay Idriss II founded the city in 807, you would have found only Berbers here. But at the beginning of the 9th century, this changed. On the eastern bank of the Oued Fez, eight hundred families from Andalusian Córdoba settled. A few years later, about two thousand families from the Tunisian Kairaouan arrived on the western bank of the river. This forever established the Arab character of Fez. Gradually, the Tunisian part would grow to become the largest and wealthiest district of the old medina.

 

Pottery atelier

For the famous blue and white ceramics of Fez, we descend to a pottery workshop. The clay is sourced from about five kilometres away, we learn from Zaki. The dry clay is moistened, and then the turner gets to work with it. With skilled fingers, he shapes the quickly rotating clay mass into elegant forms while he drives the heavy flywheel with his foot.

The traditional ovens have long been replaced by modern gas-fired ones

Next, the pieces go into the ovens for the first time. The traditional ovens have long been replaced by modern gas-fired ones. With these, you can maintain a temperature of 950 to 1,000 °C (1,742 to 1,832 °F) quite accurately, which significantly improves the quality of the product, according to Zaki.

 

Hand painted ceramics

After seven to eight hours of baking, the dark pots have turned white and are ready to be painted in the design department. A protective layer of glaze is applied, and the pots are heated a second time to 1,000 °C (1,832 °F).

 

Ceramics

Mosaic

It is quite different in the mosaic workshop. Glazed tiles are cut into conical pieces with great precision. Each piece must fit perfectly into the pattern. They are then placed upside down on a metal grid and coated with mortar, so that they harden into a panel.

 

Immediately, the authenticity of this unique medina has us in its grip, making it easy to feel as though you’ve stepped back in time a few centuries

Fez – Medina

Slowly it becomes time to explore the old medina. Chauffeur Muhammad drops us off at the northern Bab Guissa. Khadija leads us firmly through a completely confusing maze of winding alleys, often no more than a meter wide. Immediately, the authenticity of this unique medina has us in its grip. Motorised traffic is completely absent, making it easy to feel as though you’ve stepped back in time a few centuries. This medina has rightly been part of the world heritage since 1981.

 

 

We make our way through the food market, where vegetables, fruit, and meat are offered, as well as fish and even shellfish. Next is the textile market. All colours are extracted from plant and mineral substances, Khadija emphasises. Giant tajines are available for rent for wedding celebrations.

 

Coppersmiths on Place Es Seffarine

 

The hellish clang of hammers announces Place Es Seffarine from afar. Coppersmiths craft all kinds of household items there. A little further on, we see the façade of the al-Qarawiyyin Mosque. This famous complex, with an area of 16,000 m², also contains a university and has been restored by UNESCO. At its peak in the 13th and 14th centuries, the university housed 8,000 students, accommodated in the surrounding madrasas. Subjects such as theology, Islamic law, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine were taught here. Today, the library holds thirty million works, according to Khadija, including quite a number of ancient manuscripts.

 

 

In a former caravanserai, workshops of craftsmen are housed. Once, this was a kind of hotel for caravans. The animals and merchandise stayed downstairs, while the merchants spent the night on the first floor. In total, the medina of Fez has three hundred such caravanserais and four hundred mosques.

 

Fez – Tannery

A long walk through narrow alleys leads us to the famous tannery. From a rooftop terrace, we look down on a kaleidoscope of colours and smells. With mint twigs, we try to ward off the odours. In flawless Dutch, Chalid explains – he has lived for years in Riemst near Maastricht in Belgium.

This tannery dates back to the 11th century and is thus the oldest and largest in Africa. Hides from camels, cows, goats, and sheep are processed here. First, they are washed in the river. Then, they’re put into the grey pits at the front for 10 to 15 days. These contain unslaked lime, used to remove hair and other things. First, lime is poured into the pit, and then water is added. This mixture is stirred for 3 to 4 hours. Only then are the animal hides submerged, to avoid burning them immediately. Chalid leaves it unclear how the bare skin of the workers fares.

 

Tannery

Then the hides are put into the washing machines – washing is no longer done by hand, emphasises Chalid. Ammonia is then used to soften the leather. Seven days later, the hide is washed again and ultimately dyed. Only natural substances are used – mascara, saffron, henna, poppy, and indigo produce the vibrant black, yellow, orange, red, and blue shades. The dye is always applied to the inside of the hide and also kills bacteria that may have survived the previous stages.

On the adjacent terraces, the hides are finally laid out to dry, after which they are ready to be processed in the factories.

This cooperative employs one hundred and fifty workers from the same family. The craft is passed down from generation to generation

Tannery

This cooperative employs one hundred and fifty workers from the same family. The craft is passed down from generation to generation. The work is very demanding and starts in the morning after the first prayer because it’s still cool at that time.

 

Baker

Following in Khadija's wake, we continue through the neighbourhood. The local baker is busy with his oven – he bakes round breads in the morning and sweet cookies in the afternoon.

 

Mosque of Sidi Ahmed Tijani

Portal

The portals of the Sidi Ahmed Tijani Mosque are surprisingly beautiful. As a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad, this Algerian received a warm welcome in Fez. He established the Tariqa Tijaniya here, a brotherhood with followers throughout the Maghreb and even south of the Sahara, in countries such as Niger, Mali, and Senegal. This explains why the restoration costs of this mosque were covered not only by UNESCO but also by Senegal. To this day, it remains an important pilgrimage site for Tijani’s followers – a second Mecca, as it were.

 

Headscarf fashion		Colourful yarns
Little wallets

Dating back to the era of the Marinids, the 15th-century Al-Attarine Madrasa once served as free lodging for university students. Behind its modest, unassuming exterior lies an astonishingly beautiful building.

Behind its modest, unassuming exterior lies an astonishingly beautiful building

Al-Attarine Madrasa – Courtyard

Khadija points out the four elements that make the courtyard a feast for the eyes: cedar wood, marble, mosaic, and stucco. The distinctly Moorish style is unmistakably inspired by the great Andalusian masterpieces. We recognise stalactite patterns, geometric motifs, calligraphic texts, and the elegant mihrab. UNESCO has done an outstanding job with the restoration.

The distinctly Moorish style is unmistakably inspired by the great Andalusian masterpieces

Stucco work with stalactites

Mihrab (prayer niche)

We approach the horm, the sacred district surrounding the mausoleum of Moulay Idriss II. A crossbeam over the alley marks an invisible boundary that animals may not cross. This is one of Morocco’s busiest pilgrimage sites. Candles burn in front of the portal. Pilgrims occasionally insert money into a slot in a brass plaque on the outer wall, hoping to receive the baraka, the holy power of Moulay Idriss.

 

Demarcation of the horm, the sacred precinct surrounding the mausoleum

Mausoleum of Moulay Idriss II

For non-Muslims, the complex is haram, forbidden territory. Muslim women, too, are not permitted to linger near the sarcophagus. However, we are allowed a glimpse into the antechamber for women. Beautiful lamps hang from the cedar wood ceilings.

 

Gate of the Royal Palace

Former mellah (Jewish quarter)

Driver Muhammad now heads toward Fez el Djedid, the 15th-century district of the Marinids, and drops us off at the 13th-century royal palace. Although Muhammad VI officially resides in Rabat, his 80-hectare estate (198 acres) in Fez is certainly impressive – behind the high walls are tennis courts, a golf course, and a private clinic, Aziz informs us. The cedar-wood gates are covered in bronze and were last restored in 1968.

 

 

From the 14th century onward, the Jews enjoyed the protection of the Moroccan king – though, of course, at a hefty price. The mellah, or Jewish quarter, thus cosily nestled against the royal palace. Nowadays, you’ll find almost exclusively Muslims in the mellah, as most Jews have sought safer accommodations elsewhere.

 

 

Beautiful wooden balconies adorn the facades of the houses, a striking contrast to the inward-facing architecture of the homes in the old medina. Bab Semmarine marks the transition from the traditional Jewish quarter to the Muslim neighbourhoods.

Fez owes its honorary title of the Blue City to the blue faience tiles of this gate, though on the city side, they are green

Bab Semmarine

Through Bab Bou Jeloud, we once again enter the old medina, this time from the eastern side. Fez owes its honorary title of the Blue City to the blue faience tiles of this gate, though on the city side, they are green. The view through the gate offers one of the most famous images of Fez – the bustling Talaa Kebira, over which two minarets tower. Just around the corner, in the shade of a handful of trees, the sidewalk cafés are bustling with people.

 

Bou Inania Madrasa

Not without reason, Khadija has saved the Bou Inania Madrasa for last. It is a jewel from the 14th century – the same Moorish style as the Al-Attarine Madrasa, but even larger, and even more beautiful.

 

Bou Inania Madrasa

Again, behind a modest facade lies a dazzlingly beautiful courtyard. This madrasa has always been used as a mosque, Khadija explains, and also as a classroom for uneducated women. The scent of cedar wood greets us.

 

Bou Inania Madrasa

Whether Fez has the most beautiful medina in the world, we do not know. What we are sure of is that it is the most beautiful and authentic medina we have ever seen.

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Jaak Palmans
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